Henry or William James, Britton has always respected the symbiotic and dynamic mutuality of action/reflection, flights/perchings; and, like Jerome Bruner, he has reinvented his field through intellectual ventures across the board and close scrupulous observation of/interaction with children and young people learning. In the light of such exemplary virtue-moral, intellectual, pedagogical-it is indeed regrettable that Britton's published work should have been the victim of persistently egregious misreading in the USA. As far as I can determine, such misreadings do not derive from the pusillanimous misrepresentations of his British criticsWhitehead, Inglis, or Adams-so much as from direct misunderstanding or incomprehension: many examples spring to mind, two representative cases being the St. Martin's Bibliography and an essay by Burton Hatlen in Thomas Newkirk's Only Connect. Aside from Britton's own work-Language and Learning, The Development of Writing Abilities, and Prospect and Retrospect (ed. Gordon Pradl)-there is no text currently available in the USA that offers a reliable and comprehensive account of his achieve-

The first book to examine closely how the relationship of Cicero s oral and written skills bears on his legal argumentation.Enos argues that, more than any other Roman advocate, Cicero developed a literate mind which enabled him to construct arguments that were both compelling in court and popular in society. Through close examination of the audience and substance of Cicero s legal rhetoric, Enos shows that Cicero used his writing skills as an aid to composition of his oral arguments; after the trial, he again used writing to edit and re-compose texts that appear as speeches but function as literary statements directed to a public audience far removed from the courtroom.These statements are couched in a mode that would eventually become a standard of literary eloquence. Enos explores the differences between oral and literary composition to reveal relationships that bear not only on different modes of expression but also on the conceptual and cultural factors that shape meaning itself.

time, encouragement, and craft of two master teachers and writers-are attitudes and skills that extend beyond poetry and fiction writing. To value self-investment, to avoid premature closure, to see revision as discovery, to go beyond the predictable, to risk experimentation, and, above all, to trust your own creative power are necessary for all good writing, whether it is a freshman theme, a poem, a term paper, or a 4 C's paper. Yet in academic writing, except perhaps for the dissertation, these are not integral to the pedagogy. Few of us reward risk-taking that fails with a better grade than polished but pedestrian texts. We are more product-oriented, judging assignments as independent of one another rather than as part of a collective and ongoing body of work. No wonder that students interpret our message as Be careful, not creative!

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Last year I became a student writer again-and a novice at that. For although I'd been teaching and writing nonfiction for years-both academic articles and feature stories-I never wrote much fiction. And although I dabbled in poetry, even had a few poems published once, I never before took a course in poetry writing. Frankly, I didn't have the guts in college, never thought of myself as creative enough to risk such public exposure. The budding confidence I felt in fourth grade when my suspense thriller, Thunderstorm, was published in a class booklet had been buried under too many years of exposition, both for school and work. I didn't really recover it until long after graduation, when I received a fellowship that gave me released time from full-time teaching in order to take two creative writing courses at Princeton University: one in fiction writing with Russell Banks, author of the much-acclaimed Continental Drift; the other in poetry writing, with Pulitzer-Prize winning poet, Carolyn Kizer. These were undergraduate courses incidently, because that's all Princeton offers, so except for three other older women (i.e., over 40) in the poetry class, the rest of my peers were under 22. It was a remarkable experience-to wear the shoe on the other foot and be a student again. For one thing, I realized how much more I enjoy learning now than I did at 20 when my future loomed before me like a huge, unmarked field. And how much more focused I am in energy once scattered on a million other concerns. For another thing, I've toughened up over the years. Twenty-five additional years of living and writing have helped me know and risk more, personally and intellectually, than I would ever have dared, even ten years ago. I have more of life to draw upon and more laurels to rest upon, as needed. These assets, I've found, are shared by other over-30 adults--even if, like many of my returning students, their extra writing experiences are mainly in letter or report writing. Life experience and writing success notwithstanding, I was surprised at my own vulnerabilities as a writer. Many of my fears, confusions, and needs were not as different from my younger counterparts' as I would have predicted. Remembering what it

In the final week of the sequence, Assignment #12, Telling Lives, returns us to the reflective essay and our everyday encounters with interpreting and composing. They are to compose a biographical narrative about a close friend or a relative. In a sense, they are to compose a life, but as they are now quick to observe, they cannot report, or even know, an entire life anymore than Hersey could know or tell the of Hiroshima. As had Hersey, they will have to sort through the received stories, personal and historical facts, the firsthand observations. This telling will be neither whole truth nor fiction. What matters, finally, is that their compositions are responsible and useful, both to the writer and to the reader.

In a style that combines scholarly care with remarkable readability, North examines the development of the field of composition in a way it has not been examined before. Rather than focusing on what people claim to know about teaching writing, he concerns himself primarily with how they claim to know it. Eight groups of knowledge-makers are treated in separate chapters: Practitioners, Historians, Philosophers, Critics, Experimentalists, Clinicians, Formalists, and Ethnographers. Each of these chapters orients the reader by tracing the mode's first uses in the field and listing its best known and most important adherents; then goes on to explain how the mode of inquiry works, illustrating key points with painstaking analysis of well-known studies. In his final three chapters, North turns from these individual modes to consider the field as a whole: How have these different ways of making knowledge come together? What is Composition now, and what is it likely to become?

for the Classroom is an anthology of essays by teachers using Paulo Freire's methods in their classrooms. These essays, collected from professional journals, represent some of the best experimental teaching done to adapt Freire's liberatory pedagogy to North American classrooms. The articles show the creative enthusiasm many teachers gain from Freire's ideas, as well as the critical literacy and political awareness students gain through this approach. The book offers critical theory side by side with actual reports of teaching practice, so that philosophy is brought down to earth in terms familiar to practicing teachers. Included in the volume is a Letter to North American Teachers written by Paulo Freire expressly for this book, along with an essay by Cynthia Brown discussing the original methods used by Freire.

Word processors, as teaching machines, are currently caught in something of a backlash. Just a few years ago, we heard they possessed almost magical powers for student writing and writing instruction. Now, before some of us have even had a chance to try them for ourselves, researchers have begun to tell us that computers do not really help student writers much after all. On the contrary, they warn, when students' performances with text editors are judged against their performances with pen and paper, inexperienced writers, those whose typical revising behaviors are actually editing behaviors, continue to edit exclusively and with increased frequency on the word pro-

Berlin here continues his unique history of American college com-position begun in his Writing Instruction in Nineteenth-Century Colleges (1984), turning now to the twentieth century.In discussing the variety of rhetorics that have been used in writ-ing classrooms Berlin introduces a taxonomy made up of three cate-gories: objective rhetorics, subjective rhetorics, and transactional rhetorics, which are distinguished by the epistemology on which each is based. He makes clear that these categories are not tied to a chronology but instead are to be found in the English department in one form or another during each decade of the century.His historical treatment includes an examination of the formation of the English department, the founding of the NCTE and its role in writing instruction, the training of teachers of writing, the effects of progressive education on writing instruction, the General Education Movement, the appearance of the CCCC, the impact of Sputnik, and today's literacy crisis.

Classrooms filled with glassy-eyed students provide an experiential base for Alice S. Horning s new comprehensive theory about basic writers.Horning explores the theory of writing acquisition in detail. Her examination of spoken and written language and redundancy give a theoretical base to her argument that academic discourse is a separate linguistic system characterized by particular psycholinguistic features. She proposes that basic writers learn to write as other learners master a second language because for them, academic written English is a whole new language.She explores the many connections to be found in second language acquisition research to the teaching and learning of writing and gives special attention to the interlanguage hypothesis, pidginization theory, and the Monitor theory. She also addresses the role of affective factors (feelings, attitudes, emotions, and motivation) in the success or failure of writing students.

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(especially the reading of literature) has often been justified in the writing classroom because reading gives students something to imitate (see, for example, Miller's Composition and Decomposition and Comley and Scholes's Literature, Composition, and the Structure of English). The text, it is argued, provides a model of effective writing which students can copy, and the process of reading critically, practiced on literature, can become a model of how writers should behave in reading their own work. is thus seen as useful because it models both forms and processes for writers to imitate. But is this kind of imitation how writers really learn to write? Or does imitation in learning actually work some other way? In this article, I'll suggest an alternative understanding of imitation and reading in the writing classroom, and I'll exemplify this alternative using material from a semester-long participant-observation study of a freshman Composition and Reading course. The alternative runs as follows: when a student (or any writer) successfully learns something about writing by imitation, it is by imitating another person, and not a text or a process. Writers learn to write by imitating other writers, by trying to act like writers they respect. The forms, the processes, the texts

Writing: Philosophical Assumptions Inherent in Current Cognitive Models of Writing. Reciprocity as a Principle of Discourse. What Writers Do. M. Nystrand, A. Doyle, and M. Himley, A Critical Examination of the Doctrine of Autonomous Texts. Necessary Text Elaborations. Learning to Write: M. Himley, Genre as Generative: One Perspective on One Child's Early Writing Growth. Where do the Spaces Go? The Development of Word Segmentation in the Bissex Texts. Learning to Write by Talking about Writing: A Summary of Research on Intensive Peer Review in Expository Writing Instruction at the University of Wisconsin at Madison. References. Index.

Blending a complete writing-about-literature text, a literature anthology, and a handbook into one, this distinctive book guides students through the allied processes of critical reading and writing -- illustrating the use of writing as a way of studying literature, and providing students with all of the tools necessary to analyze literature on their own. The text promotes interactive learning by integrating writing instruction with the study of literature. NEW to this edition: *Arguing and interpretation guidelines *Additional casebooks *Updated and expanded Companion Website -- the addition of a Writing About Literature section, interactive timeline, author photos, easy navigational bar, information on literary theory We are delighted to offer select Penguin Putnam titles at a substantial discount to your students when you request a special package of one or more Penguin titles with any Prentice Hall text. Contact your Prentice Hall sales representative for special ordering instructions. www.turnitin.com -- This new online resource is now available free to professors using Literature and the Writing Process, Sixth Edition. Turnitin.com, formerly Plagiarism.org, is a powerful tool to help instructors identify and prevent student plagiarism on the Web.

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This is a book about reading, writing, and teaching and the ways each can be imagined as composition. The authors bring together eight years of teaching and research connected with the integrated basic reading and writing course developed at the University of Pittsburgh. The approach offered here--widely discussed in professional journals--has been tested at several universities, as well as at the high school level.

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The argument of this book is that the earliest tradition of Western rhetoric, the classical perspective of Aristotle and Cicero, continues to have the greatest impact on writing instruction--albeit an unconscious impact. This occurs despite the fact that modern rhetoric no longer accepts either the views of mind, language, and world underlying ancient theory or the concepts about discourse, knowledge, and communication presented in that theory. As a result, teachers are depending on ideas as outmoded as they are unreflectively accepted. Knoblauch and Brannon maintain that the two traditions are fundamentally incompatible in their assumptions and concepts, so that writing teachers must make choices between them if their teaching is to be purposeful and consistent. They suggest that the modern tradition offers a richer basis for instruction, and they show what teaching from that perspective looks like and how it differs from traditional teaching.

To establish the issues that must be considered by evaluators of college writing programs, Witte and Faigley review major evaluation studies conducted at the University of Northern Iowa, the University of California San Diego, Miami University, and the University of Texas.For each study the authors devise a series of questions that probe every aspect of theory, pedagogy, and research: What do we presently know? What assumptions are we making and how do those assumptions limit our knowledge? Are those limitations necessary or desirable? What do we still need to know?Such questions demand much of program evaluators, who also must face additional difficult questions as they evaluate a writing program. Do the instructors conducting the writing classes share common assumptions that are reflected in their assignments, evaluative procedures, teaching procedures, and course content? How stable will the program prove to be over time? Will the writing program have a lasting effect? Do students leave the program with increased confidence in their ability to write?As Witte and Faigley urge program evaluators to pose these questions, they also bring to the problem a new comprehensive conceptual framework that both necessitates such queries and provides an opportunity to answer them.

Beat Not the Poor Desk helps students develop elemental skills, not by drill, but by the incremental repetition of integrated writing assignments.

Rhetorical history as a guide to the salvation of American reading and writin James J. Murphy -- Remarks on composition to the Yale English Department / E Hirsch, Jr. -- Restoring the humanities / James Kinneavy -- The Phaedrus idy as ethical play / Virginia N. Steinhoff -- Classical practice and contempora basics / Susan Miller -- Ciceronian rhetoric and the rise of science / S. Michael Halloran and Merrill D. Whitburn -- John Locke's contributions to rhetoric / Edward P.J. Corbett -- Rhetoricin the liberal arts / Winifred Bry Horner -- Nineteenth-century psychology and the shaping of Alexander Bain's English composition and rhetoric / Gerald P. Mulderig -- Three nineteenth-century rhetoricians / Nan Johnson -- Two model teachers and the Harvardization of English departments / Donald C. Stewart -- Concepts of art and the teaching of writing / Richard E. Young.

masterful book...one of the most thorough books on rhetoric I've seen.--Olivia Castellano, California State University, Sacramento beautiful work. The first text I have so far seen that operates fully from the principles we have learned about writing and the teaching of writing in the last fiftenn years.--Ronald Shook A dramatic, invention-centered approach to the teaching of writing skills, this comprehensive text actively involves students in the writing process, drawing on the language capabilities they bring to the classroom.

Defining a rhetoric as a social invention arising out of a particular time, place, and set of circumstances, Berlin notes that no rhetoricnot Plato s or Aristotle s or Quintilian s or Perelman sis permanent. At any given time several rhetorics vie for supremacy, with each attracting adherents representing various views of reality expressed through a rhetoric.Traditionally rhetoric has been seen as based on four interacting elements: reality, writer or speaker, audience, and language. As emphasis shifts from one element to another, or as the interaction between elements changes, or as the definitions of the elements change, rhetoric changes. This alters prevailing views on such important questions as what is appearance, what is reality.In this interpretive study Berlin classifies the three 19th-century rhetorics as classical, psychological-epistemological, and romantic, a uniquely American development growing out of the transcendental movement. In each case studying the rhetoric provides insight into society and the beliefs of the people.

In the summer of 1936, George Orwell sat at his desk in his cottage in Wallington, Near Baldock, Herfordshire. with birds chattering or squabbling in the rafters overhead, he began to write an essay about shooting an elephant, an essay which would become remarkably popular. (See Bernard Crick, George Orwell: A Life [London: Secker and Warburg, 19801, p. 200.) Most remarkable of all, even for the author of 1984, Orwell foresaw with incredible clarity my 1980 freshman composition class: black, Chicago bornand-raised Paula Smith; Massey-Ferguson-seed-cap-wearing Dale Harvey; all A's, small-town (Sheldon) Kevin Youngers, and all the others. With at least my Iowans in mind Orwell wrote, And at that distance, peacefully eating, the elephant looked no more dangerous than a (Shooting an Elephant, in The Collected Essays, Journalism, and Letters of George Orwell, ed. Sonia Orwell and Ian Angus [New York: Harcourt, 19681, I, 239). Of course the notion that Orwell included a cow comparison for farm-oriented Dale and Kevin is absurd. But nearly all the editors of the composition textbooks we call readers imply that Orwell (and other authors) wrote specifically for college students or generally for anyone ever able to read English. Actually Orwell's concern about a specific audience began before my students were born. In a May 27, 1936 response to a query from Michael Lehmann, editor of New Writing, Orwell writes:

The last twenty years have seen a great expansion, as well as considerable shift of emphasis and focus, in publication about English composition. On even a cursory count, there are now over two dozen journals regularly publishing material in the field, not to mention books, course texts, research reports, or ERIC documents. However, as active composition researchers well know, there is no single bibliographic resource giving both full and focussed annual coverage of this output, nor any very certain means of identifying and retrieving the items previously published on a given composition topic.' There are available, of course, many orientatory bibliographies and research guides to composition, and these have real usefulness, but one needs to make a clear conceptual distinction between the selective or interpretive bibliographical guidance such guides offer and the more basic bibliographical control we increasingly need-on-going, systematic, non-judgmental coverage of activity in the field. Part of the problem with orientatory guides is their rapid obsolescence: as Edward Corbett has noted, Nothing-not even last year's hemline-dates as quickly as a published bibliography.2 But in addition to being dated, discursive and orientatory guides pose other problems: nearly all the existing guides are avowedly selective in their coverage, most of them are silent about the kinds of searching from which they were compiled, they are often biased one way or another in their selection of material, and, most fundamental of all, there are disturbing gaps in the chronological coverage they provide. The research consequences of current problems in composition bibliography have not been widely understood, and in this paper I want to explore four special features of the composition field that have made bibliographic control difficult. It is only when researchers, teachers, graduate students, librarians, and bibliographers recognize the special nature of composition re-

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Halpern and Liggett provide a close look at several of the new communication systems, present a model of field research through which one of the new technologies is closely examined, and draw conclusions that lead to specific changes in emphasis in the teaching of They describe instructional units that introduce the new technologies in college writing classes and the results of classroom experiments in which these units were tested. Finally they define additional research questions about the new technologies and timely approaches for answering them. They highlight the role of long-term and short-term memory, show how the choice of a composing medium influences the writing process, and discuss critical differences between speaking and writing.

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James E. Middleton, John D. Reiff, A "Student-Based" Approach to Writing Assignments, College Composition and Communication, Vol. 36, No. 2, Writing in the Academic and Professional Disciplines: Bibliography Theory Practice Preparation of Faculty (May, 1985), pp. 232-234

Up until the publication of Alexander Bain's English Composition and Rhetoric in 1866, most American college textbook rhetorics were organized around belletristic discourse classifications; that is, they divided up the subject of writing into established literary forms such as orations, history, romance, treatises, sermons, and the like. Bain's textbook brought about what we now, thanks to Thomas Kuhn, refer to as a paradigm shift, sweeping away these belletristic schemes and substituting five forms-Description, Narration, Exposition, Persuasion, and Poetry-that, with the exception of Poetry, have survived up to the present in Freshman Composition and are known in the trade as the Modes of Discourse. 1 In recent years, however, another paradigm shift has been taking place, and Bain is now often held responsible for the impoverishment of rhetoric in the late nineteenth century.2 Regrettably, in the campaign to undo the damage he did, little attention has been paid to his intellectual milieu or to the question of why he did what he did, with the result that the true historical importance of the modes has been obscured. The most noteworthy feature of Bain's English Composition and Rhetoric-and the reason perhaps for its popularity among his contemporaries-may be its reliance upon the scientific thought of the day. During the previous century in Bain's native Scotland, Adam Smith, George Campbell, Hugh Blair and Joseph Priestley had sought to redefine the basic aims of rhetoric, largely in an effort to accommodate the increasingly prestigious natural sciences. As Wilbur Samuel Howell has argued, the classical rhetorical systems offered little guidance to the scientist in presenting his discoveries to the learned community and to the public at large: they conceived of persuasion as an appeal to commonplaces rather than facts, they depended for methods of proof on the logic of deduction rather than induction, they encouraged the use of ornamental figurative devices rather than plain statements, and in general they were designed for popular exhortation rather than for disseminating fresh knowledge.3 In his Essay concerning Human Understanding (1690), Locke points the way to-

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