IN The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, Thomas Kuhn elaborates the concept of the a comprehensive theoretical model that governs both the view of reality accepted by an intellectual community and the practice of that community's discipline. This concept has increasing interest for English studies because new demands on our composition courses, along with new developments in literary theory, have contributed to a hot debate over the premises of our discipline. Maxine Hairston, for one, has explained in an address to the 1978 convention of the Conference on College Composition and Communication that we should understand this debate as the sort of profound revolution in accepted thinking that accompanies a new paradigm, rather than as an unrelated group of local disagreements over critical tastes and pedagogical methods. Professor Hairston wants to dignify our debate as a debate because she fears, with good reason, that its beginnings in literary theory and composition pedagogy have allowxved too many practitioners in English studies to regard it as tangential to their main business. Therefore, Hairston emphasizes the comprehensive nature of the as Kuhn explains it. Having characterized our situation as a debate, however, Hairston goes on to support her own candidate for our new by an appeal to evidence. But it is Kuhn's most striking point that a determines the identification and interpretation of empirical in a given discipline. Empirical makes sense only when considered in light of a paradigm; therefore, evidence cannot be imported to establish a above debate. Hairston and others (Janet Emig and E. D. Hirsch, for example) have sought, however, to establish a based on such evidence, under the misapprehension that only a so established can raise English studies to the status of a truly rigorous discipline. On the contrary, Kuhn argues that a is established, even in the natural sciences, not because of compelling evidence, but because of a rhetorical process that delimits the shared language of the intellectual community governed by the paradigm. Indeed, he suggests that he has derived his concept of paradigm for the sciences from a study of the theoretical models that govern the humanistic disciplines. In following Kuhn, we should not be misled into a scientistic faith in evidence as compelling. Instead, the special province of our new may be indicated in his analysis of the ways in which any is constituted by language.

DURING THE LAST CLASS MEETING of every term, routinely ask my students to evaluate the course they have just finished and my performance as their instructor. From their remarks, often learn as much about their attitudes towards learning and their expectations of an education as do about my own strengths and weaknesses as a teacher. Last fall, when read my sophomores' evaluations of the English literature survey that taught, was disturbed to find these comments, among others like them, about the examinations had given: Discussion question counted to [sic] much; Maybe ask more Fill in blanks & Multiple choice. Some comments about grading always expect, but here the occasional complaint that graded too rigorously was incidental to a more basic objection. They were protesting that demanded of them too much writing, and they were volunteering that were both more appropriate and more desirable than the discussion had asked. For several reasons, this round of complaints gave me pause. In the first place, had not forced them to overexert themselves writing. Over the course of the semester, essay questions counted for only a little more than half the total number of points on their tests. Secondly, this was not the complaint of a single malcontent, for the theme surfaced in the evaluations of a large portion of the class. Finally, the more pondered their comments about writing in relation to objective questions, the more unnerving found their implications. What my class was suggesting in effect challenged some of the very premises of a humanistic liberal arts education-that is, precisely the kind of education in which the study of literature is important and meaningful. Admittedly, the tone of these evaluations remained generally restrained; on the whole, my students registered their objections with moderation. When tried to probe more deeply into their dissatisfaction, though, by inquiring specifically about their attitudes toward writing, uncovered a much more virulent strain of animosity and anger. One student commented tersely, I feel a 100 pt. essay question is ridiculous, and most of his classmates seemed to agree. An overwhelming majority felt they did better on objective questions than on essay questions, and a similar number reported that they preferred objective questions to essays. Almost half the class even confessed that they had considered not taking one course or another at the university because they knew in advance that they would be expected to do some

Providing the most thorough coverage available in one volume, this comprehensive, broadly based collection offers a wide variety of selections in four major genres, and also includes a section on film. Updated and revised, this fourth edition adds essays by Margaret Mead, Russell Baker, Joan Didion, Annie Dillard, and Alice Walker; many new short stories; the addition of poets Langston Hughes and Louise Gluck; and plays by August Wilson, Marsha Norman, Wendy Wasserstein, and Vaclav Havel.

Now if there is anyone in this piece of writing who desires something dearly, it is surely the student writer, who is reaching for poetry and, for all his clumsiness, nearly succeeding. In the years since I first read this paper, the term has become for me and my friends synonymous with a certain kind of student error: the strained metaphor, odd juxtaposition, or honest misconception which inadvertently reveals a fresh perspective on the matter at hand. I will try to demonstrate that the true tasty fruit possesses its own inner logic, that it is a sure sign of a capacity for creative and structured thought, and that this potential is worth cultivating. Mina Shaughnessy begins her ground-breaking book, Errors and Expectations (New York: Oxford University Press, 1977) by observing that the freshmen in her basic writing class made mistakes in grammar and syntax because no one [had seen] the intelligence of their mistakes or thought to harness that intelligence in the service of learning (p. 5). What I propose is that Shaughnessy's perception applies equally to the errors in tone and diction made by students when writing about literature. In general, tasty fruits are borne in greatest profusion by the papers of students who are bright but not adept at standard English or the standard methods of literary criticism. It was an open-enrollment student who produced the following observation on religion in America:

ALL I COULD SEE in front of me was white. White walls, frozen white on the roof outside my window, icicles hanging from a nearby roof gutter like translucent chandeliers. Rows of houses filled with blank minds; people staring at blank paper trying to fill the pages with anything. To generate thoughts and transfer them to paper, an impossible task. But why? Do writing demons cloud the mind and make writing so painful? The final paper was due in a few weeks. It was to be our perfect paper. A month after handing it in we would be teaching composition to some poor kids. I had no energy to write it and nothing to write about. I disgustedly left the typewriter and sprawled out on the bed. The page was blank so I couldn't even crumple it to vent my frustration. I picked up a book of short stories by Woody Alien and begin reading about a Boston College coed who hired a detective to find out if God was dead. She needed the information for a term paper. This story gave me an idea for my own final paper. There have been many articles on why Johnny can't read or write. Why such a tremendous interest in this fellow Johnny? Just who is he? I was determined to find out and use the material in my final paper. I went back to my typewriter and began writing letters to some of the major publications in which Johnny's story had appeared. After a week of receiving no replies, I began calling the places on the phone. Everyone I spoke with laughed at me. I called the FBI but the most I could get from them was, No comment. At this point I began to suspect conspiracy. There was no logical reason unless the government was now getting into conspiracy as an art form. Conspiracy for conspiracy's sake. One kid could not have any noticeable effect on the national average for standardized tests. My investigation had reached a dead end until one day I looked at a book titled Current Topics in Language (Nancy Ainsworth Johnson, ed.: Cambridge, Mass.: Winthrop, 1976) and came upon an article entitled Juanito's Reading Problems: Foreign Language Interference and Reading Skill Acquisition, by Nancy Modiano. So the plot thickened; either Johnny was using an alias, or matters had been complicated by a new person (or should I say persona) entering the scene. Going on the assumption that Johnny and Juanito were one and the same, I hired a detective to find him. All we had to go on was his name and the fact that he supposedly couldn't read or write. The detective tramped around the Midwest through the snow, made numerous phone calls, and followed around certain literary editors. After two weeks the situation seemed hopeless and I could no longer afford her fees, that is, if I was to pay the next semester's tuition. It was at the back of

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IN A FIELD AS NEW AS WOMEN'S STUDIES, to protest the traditional reading list or approach may seem premature. However, after several traumatic semesters one might argue convincingly for a reevaluation. Whereas generally the task of choosing texts for Women's Studies courses in literature is an exciting experience because of the anticipation of introducing students to many writers who are left out of their regular curricula, it also posits the difficulty of achieving a balanced representation of the various images of women. particular difficulty in point is finding sufficient representations for that section of the course that should be entitled The Liberated Woman or She Who Succeeds. In American Literature, the shortage is acute. Having made a study of the dearth of self-actualized, positive heroines in works by American Male Novelists for the Educational Resources Infor7nation Center, the problem was not unexpected. Nor has this deficiency gone without critical comment. Caroline Heilbrun discussed the implications of this problem in her article for Saturday Review, The Masculine Wilderness of the American Novel. Wendy Martin's conclusion in Seduced and Abandoned in the New World is that daughters of Eve, American heroines are destined to lives of dependency and servitude as well as to painful and sorrowful childbirth because, like their predecessor, they have dared to disregard authority or tradition in search of wisdom or happiness... . problem is not limited to fiction. Studies abound that lament the lack of positive female role models in everything from the Dick and Jane primary readers to high school history books. Adding women writers to the reading lists, whether they be writers newly discovered or resurrected by feminist criticism or already acclaimed writers, does little to alleviate the problem. resultant mood created by the reading material in Women's Studies courses in American Literature is rage or despair. This is true though there are several excellent short story and poetry anthologies that can be used in combination with any number of novels. same is true, though to a lesser extent, in a course that focuses on biography or autobiography. After going mad with Zelda, attempting suicide in Bell Jar, and agonizing through

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Any new theory will prove its worth by the number of problems it solves. The more convincingly it solves particular problems the more people it converts, until finally it isn't new anymore. Yet the curious fact about most change is that the new theory by solving other people's problems creates problems of its own. It has been said, for example, that Kant solved Hume's problem but failed to solve his own. In this paper I would like to discuss how Fish solved Wimsatt/Beardsley's problem but failed likewise to solve his own. For it seems to me that the two examples are intimately related. Fish did for literary criticism what Kant did for philosophy, i.e. put the subject at the center of the universe. It is my contention that in doing this, both Kant and Fish are faced with the same problem, namely the disappearance of the universe both seek to explain. The heart of Kant's (and Fish's) problem is the nature of the Ding an sich (or the text) and the possibility of change. For Kant the Ding an sich was the basis of our sense perceptions vet did not partake of form and was therefore unknowable. It was essential for Kant's system, yet his system was ultimately unable to explain it. This contradiction was noticed and led to the conclusion taken by Fichte and Schelling that if the Ding an sich was unknowable, then it didn't (or

signed to teach composition, but few are trained to do it. Composition involves things like grammar, rhetoric, and logic, but often composition teachers have not formally studied those things. People applying for positions in composition programs sometimes submit transcripts listing English courses only in literature and literary criticism. If they are hired, they probably are very much at home, since often the people already teaching in those programs have similar backgrounds. Someone who has earned a degree in one of the programs created recently to train college English teachers, rather than to give traditional advanced degrees, is probably somewhat different. Those programs give some attention to composition teaching but often less than you might guess. Recently, there has been some resistance to the apparent excess of literature courses in the preparation of people who become composition teachers. Consequently, a real conflict between Lit and Comp has developed within the discipline of English. Because advocates of traditional literary training for all English teachers have long had command of the English profession, those in the relatively new resistance movement have had trouble

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Two years later Stanley Edgar Hyman roundly voiced the wish for an ideal integration of all modern critical methods into one super method (Hyman, 1955) [p. 388]. Near the end of the next decade, in 1968, a pamphlet appeared under the sponsorship of the NCTE Committee on Research, Alan G. Purves's Elements of Writing about a Literary Work: A Study of Response to Literature. This was a schema which organized statements respondents made about literary works into four main categories:

Abstract not available

CONSIDERATIONS OF STRUCTURALISM as a mode of literary criticism consistently encounter two problems. First, though is generally taken to refer to a single methodology, the diversity of approaches actually included under this term is immense. (And this is not just because structuralism is theoretically applicable to all subject matters, and has, therefore, necessarily a variety of formulations; this diversity exists even within a single discipline.) Because of this, it is difficult to discern the basic assumptions that underlie and define the structuralist approach. Second, since structuralism has its origins primarily in the physical and social sciences, it is necessarily the case that, even if its essential principles can be deduced, they will be expressed in a terminology and context that makes their applicability to literary criticism obscure and even doubtful. Nevertheless, I believe it is possible to determine a few fundamental assumptions that are shared by almost all varieties of structuralism, and to illustrate, or at least suggest, their relevance to literary criticism. Accordingly, using the theories of Jean Piaget, Claude L6vi-Strauss, Michael Lane, and Roland Barthes, I shall begin by defining follow this with a discussion of what appear to be four defining principles of structuralism, then briefly consider a few supposed and real disadvantages of the method as a means of literary criticism, and conclude with an actual structuralist analysis that illustrates the concepts involved in, and the advantages of, the approach. Piaget once defines structure as a of transformations,' and though there are various elaborate definitions of structure available, this succinct phrase includes the two concepts most important for literary criticism. By using the term system, Piaget is emphasizing that structures are not aggregates, i.e., composites formed of elements that are independent of the complexes into which they enter (p. 7). Instead, a system is such that, in the words of L6viStrauss, It is made up of several elements, none of which can undergo a change without effecting changes in all the other elements.'2 And by using the term transformations, Piaget is pointing out that one or more units of a structure,

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is not just the rejection familiar in a long series of elitist intellectual responses like those of Ruskin, Morris, Marx, Eliot, Lawrence, the Southern Agrarians, Jung, Aldous Huxley, and so on, but an actual change in mass attitudes. Reason and the life of reason have unfortunately for a couple of centuries been largely identified with mechanistic science and the industrial civilization descended from it

I. Traditional Images of Women Image One: The Wife Little Woman, Sally Benson The Angel over the Right Shoulder, Elizabeth Stuart Phelps Cutting the Jewish Bride's Hair, Ruth Whitman The Bridal Veil, Alice Cary Aunt Rosanna's Rocker, Nicholosa Mohr Migration, Carol Gregory A Wife's Story, Bharati Mukherjee Secretive, Jane Augustine Driving to Oregon, Jean Thompson Facing the Music, Larry Brown Marks, Linda Pastan. Image Two: The Mother I Sing the Body Electric! Ray Bradbury On the First Night, Erica Jong Transition, Toi Derricotte The Mother, Gwendolyn Brooks Pressure for Pressure, Ellen Lesser Expensive Gifts, Sue Miller Daddy, Jan Clausen The Envelope, Maxine Kumin Between the Lines, Ruth Stone I Ask My Mother to Sing, Li-Young Lee Flower Feet, Ruth Fainlight Speculation, Gloria C Oden Girl, Jamaica Kincaid Cihuatlyotl, Woman Alone, Gloria E Anzaldua Dear Toni Instead of a Letter, Audre Lorde Souvenir, Jayne Anne Phillips Bridging, Max Apple Grace, Vicki Sears. Image Three: Woman on a Pedestal Susanna and the Elders, Adelaide Crapsey In an Artist's Studio, Christina Rossetti The Glamour Trap, George Lefferts Pretty, Alta The End of a Career, Jean Stafford Song, William Blake Baby, You Were Great! Kate Wilhelm La Belle Dame sans Merci, John Keats The Loreley, Heinrich Heine Erzulie Freida, Zora Neale Hurston Image Four: The Sex Object The Girls in Their Summer Dresses, Irwin Shaw Brooklyn, Paule Marshall One off the Short List, Doris Lessing The Patriarch, Colette Metonymy, Julie Fay From I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings, Maya Angelou With no immediate cause, Ntozake Shange From Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl, Written by Herself, Linda Brent [Harriet Jacobs] From The Maimie Papers, Maimie Pinzer Poem about My Rights, June Jordan Image Five: Women without Men Miss Gee, W.H. Auden Bedquilt, Dorothy Canfield Fisher The Women Men Don't See, James Tiptree, Jr Silk-Workers, Agnes Smedley My Lover Is a Woman, Pat Parker Trespassing, Valerie Miner Home, Shirley Ann Grau The Story of an Hour, Kate Chopin The Widow's Lament in Springtime, William Carlos Williams Mourning to Do, May Sarton Old Things, Bobbie Ann Mason. II. Woman Becoming A Prison gets to be a friend, Emily Dickinson Tell Me a Riddle, Tillie Olsen Unlearning to Not Speak, Marge Piercy Seventeen Syllables, Hisaye Yamamoto Three Women, Charlotte Perkins Gilman A Allegory on Wimmen's Rights, Marietta Holley Miss Rosie, Lucille Clifton I Like to Think of Harriet Tubman, Susan Griffin From Work: A Story of Experience, Louisa May Alcott From Gifts of Power, Rebecca Jackson A Person as Well as a Female, Jade Snow Wong Spelling, Margaret Atwood Trifles, Susan Glaspell Diving into the Wreck, Adrienne Rich Hope, Nadya Aisenberg Homecoming, Martha Collins A Woman at the Window, Nellie Wong Present, Sonia Sanchez Beyond What, Alice Walker Three Dreams in the Desert under a Mimosa Tree, Olive Schreiner Woman, Alaide Foppa. Afterword: Writing Images/Images of Writing by Jean Ferguson Carr Suggestions for Further Reading Works Cited in Introductions Works Cited in Previous Editions Reference Works Periodicals Anthologies of Women's Writings Selected Recent Literary Criticism and Theory Acknowledgements Author/Title Index.

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This important and influential study is the first to cover the whole field of rhetoric and discourse theory, bringing together and analyzing such varied approaches as Aristotelian rhetoric, modern logic, linguistics, and literary theory. James Kinneavy explores the many and varied purposes of language, and relates these purposes to four discourse types: reference, persuasive, literary, and expressive. Each type is discussed in terms of its inherent logic, its characteristic patterns of organization, and its stylistic features, with abundant examples in support of Dr. Kinneavy's analysis. Readers are invited to sharpen their own perceptions through numerous, carefully planned end-of-chapter exercises, and through further reading in sources listed in chapter bibliographies. A Theory of Discourse is essential reading for scholars of rhetorical and discourse theory, and for teachers of writing and other communications skills. It can also serve as the core text in a course on rhetoric or the teaching of college writing.

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to many experiments with sensitivity and awareness games in literature and writing classes, especially in elementary and high schools. Maybe the feeling is that we can afford such experimentation there, because certainly the kids will be taught the same stuff over and over as they progress sluggishly through the educational system, so what they miss in rigor and memorization at one level they can pick up at the next. Maybe, too, since college is regarded as the last chance, little such experimentation has gone on there. When William Bridges scheduled a summer workshop at Mills College in June of 1970 for college teachers interested in humanistic education, in adding an affective dimension to their teaching, some 35 people showed up, from various disciplines, but few of them had had much experience with or even exposure to these techniques. But as a result of that summer workshop at Mills at least a few drops are falling into the experimental classroom bucket; this report describes how something as conservative as an undergraduate course in eighteenth-century English literature can be changed by the application of new teaching techniques. For shock value, I'll describe what we did first, and then pursue the qualifications and caveats; for brevity, I'll describe only one small portion of the semester course-that dealing with Jonathan Swift.

of literary creativity have been greeted with varying degrees of enthusiasm or antagonism in literary circles. The spectre of Beardsley and Wimsatt's attack on the intentional fallacy justifiably points to a serious limitation on the applicability of such studies to literary criticism. It is clear, however, that explication of the psychology of literary creativity has pertinence to teaching. The current enthusiasm for encouraging neophyte writers to free-up, think about and express their inner thoughts, feelings and conflicts, cries out particularly for psychiatric intervention, not necessarily because of encroachment on the professional bailiwick but because knowl-

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