Yes, education is a national issue, but it is also a danger. When I look all these books about how to teach, I have the impression that children are being used as fodder for testing, that the aim is not to educate them, but to bring them up as if they were frogs or guinea pigs for psychologists. This is dreadful. Poor young people! What they have to go through because of these books! They are trained like performing animals. (Unamuno, 1993, p.42) There are two things I cannot stand: pedagogy and sociology. The former must be replaced by art and the latter by history. (Unamuno, 1993, p. 42)

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Preface - Sidney Greenbaum Introduction - Alan C Purves PART ONE: THEORETICAL CONSIDERATIONS Culture, Writing and the Curriculum - Judit Kadar-Fulop The Problem of Comparability of Writing Tasks - Anneli Vahapassi Developing a Rating Method for Stylistic Preference - R Elaine Degenhart and Sauli Takala A Cross-Cultural Pilot Study PART TWO: NATIONAL DIFFERENCES IN WRITING STYLES Writers in Hindi and English - Yamuna Kachru Cultural Variation in Persuasive Student Writing - Ulla Connor and Janice Lauer Cultural Variation in Reflective Writing - Robert Bickner PART THREE: TRANSFER OF RHETORICAL PATTERNS IN SECOND LANGUAGE LEARNING The Second Language Learner and Cultural Transfer in Narration - Anna Soter Narrative Styles in the Writing of Thai and American Students - Chantanee Indrasuta Cultural Differences in Writing and Reasoning Skills - Sybil Carlson The Rating of Student Performance in Written Composition - Young Mok Park PART FOUR: SUMMING UP Contrastive Rhetoric and Second Language Learning - Robert B Kaplan Notes Toward a Theory of Contrastive Rhetoric

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ACCORDING TO RECENT REPORTS, the literary text is dead. A thing of the past. When I was a student in the 1940s and 1950s the text seemed a hale and hearty ruler of the literary critical world. Supported by chamberlains like I. A. Richards, who asserted its plain sense meaning, Cleanth Brooks, Robert Penn Warren, and Rene Wellek, who defined its structures, the text was there to be understood, approached, admired in all its glory with definitive editions, reader's guides, explications, and annotations. A few minor revolutionaries or dissidents were tolerated; Louise Rosenblatt was the herald of the regicides, but she was dismissed as an educationist and relegated to methods courses. Northrop Frye anatomized criticism and said that texts were mute, but many of his adherents paid no attention to his introduction and simply showed how his anatomy supported the old ruler. While the text ruled, literature was almost as easy to teach as it had been in the earlier regime when history was queen and biography her consort. Facts were then to be regurgitated: dates, trends, and influences, all assembled in a kind of manifest destiny for literature. Under the new monarchy, these were replaced by speakers, metaphors, ambiguities, images, and structures, which if not to be memorized could be learned for subsequent use in cracking the text. Criticism became an enterprise of elegance and logic, rather than of enthusiasm and emotionality; the critic became faceless rather than a personality. One may speculate as to why the reader has come to replace the text as the central figure in the literary enterprise. Perhaps the reason lies in the growth of psychological criticism which found itself confronted by the Heisenberg principle and could do little else than to observe the reader. Perhaps the reason lies in the fact that criticteachers were losing their students, those who did not want to deny their own personality. Perhaps the reason lies in the growth of interest in communication theory, perhaps in resurgent romanticism, perhaps in the distrust of the dogmatism of the critics. Other causes might occur to others, but the fact is true: The reader reigns. But who is the reader? When a critic like Stanley E. Fish writes, It is the structure of

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their insistence that there is only one approach, the thematic. Both notions seem narrow-minded, to say the least. Recently, however, I began to question whether my disquiet had larger implications: whether the problem I saw lurking in those school courses was not a symptom of a much deeper problem, one affecting the in all aspects of schooling, one affecting what some people call the humanities spirit that infects the teaching of English, the teaching of art and music, the teaching of history perhaps, and infects these disciplines not simply in the high school, but in the college, in the graduate school, and in the elementary school as well.

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