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6. Penny Edgell, Douglas Hartmann, Evan Stewart, and Joseph Gerteis, “Atheists and Other Cultural Outsiders: …
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7. “America’s Changing Religious Landscape,” Pew Research Center, May 12, 2015, http://www.pewforum.org/2015/…
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8. Will M. Gervais and Maxine B. Najle, “How Many Atheists Are There?” Social Psychological and Personality S…
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9. For a comprehensive overview of the discrimination against atheists in early U.S. history, see R. Laurence…
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10. See Whitney Anspach, Kevin Coe, and Crispin Thurlow, "The Other Closet?: Atheists, Homosexuals and the La…
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Cloud (2017)
Written Communication
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Hannah Dick, "Atheism in Religious Clothing? Accounting for Atheist Interventions in the Public Sphere," Cult…
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Roderick P. Hart, "An Unquiet Desperation: Rhetorical Aspects of 'Popular' Atheism in the United States," Qua…
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Rhodes (2014)
Rhetoric & Public Affairs
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Paul Stob, "Religious Conflict and Intellectual Agency: Robert Ingersoll's Contributions to American Thought …
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Stob (2016)
Rhetoric & Public Affairs
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11. Charles E. Morris III, ed., Queering Public Address: Sexualities in American Historical Discourse (Columb…
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12. Robert N. Bellah, “Civil Religion in America,” Daedalus 96 (1967): 3–4.
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13. Richard V. Pierard and Robert D. Linder, Civil Religion and the Presidency (Grand Rapids, MI: Academie Bo…
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14. I agree that such forms of civil religion can typically be appreciated by most Americans no matter their …
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15. Bellah, “Civil Religion,” 8–9.
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16. Roderick P. Hart, The Political Pulpit (West Lafayette, IN: Purdue University Press, 1977); and John F. W…
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17. David Domke and Kevin Coe, The God Strategy: How Religion Became a Political Weapon in America (New York:…
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18. Domke and Coe, The God Strategy, 12, 48, 61–64.
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19. Domke and Coe, The God Strategy, 19.
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20. Domke and Coe, The God Strategy, 7.
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21. Pierard and Linder, Civil Religion, 294, 284–98.
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22. Vanessa B. Beasley, You, the People: American National Identity in Presidential Rhetoric (College Station…
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23. Domke and Coe, The God Strategy, 140. However, in his review of The God Strategy, Martin J. Medhurst refe…
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24. Bellah, “Civil Religion,” 15.
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25. Pierard and Linder, Civil Religion, 24, 185, and 296.
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26. Robert V. Friedenberg, “Rhetoric, Religion and Government at the Turn of the 21st Century,” Journal of Co…
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27. Dylan Weller, “Godless Patriots: Towards a New American Civil Religion,” Polity 45 (2013): 390.
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28. This definition comes from Jean Bessette, “Queer Rhetoric in Situ,” Rhetoric Review 35 (2016): 149, who d…
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29. Amy Villarejo, “Tarrying with the Normative: Queer Theory and Black History,” Social Text 23 (84–85) (200…
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30. Lauren Berlant and Michael Warner, “Sex in Public,” Critical Inquiry 24 (1998): 548.
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31. Dwight D. Eisenhower, “President upon Signing Bill to Include the Words Under God in the Pledge to the Fl…
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32. For a comprehensive history of the Pledge of Allegiance, including the addition of the phrase “under God”…
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33. Thomas K. Nakayama and Robert L. Krizek, “Whiteness: A Strategic Rhetoric,” Quarterly Journal of Speech 8…
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34. Laura C. Prividera and John W. Howard III, “Masculinity, Whiteness, and the Warrior Hero: Perpetuating th…
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35. Nakayama and Krizek, “Whiteness,” 291; Prividera and Howard III, “Masculinity, Whiteness, and the Warrior…
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36. See, for examples, David Niose, Nonbeliever Nation: The Rise of Secular Americans (New York: Palgrave Mac…
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37. Degan Loren and Carol Rambo, “God Smites You!”: Atheists’ Experiences of Stigma, Identity Politics, and Q…
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38. David Zarefsky, “Presidential Rhetoric and the Power of Definition,” Presidential Studies Quarterly 34 (2…
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39. Lee Sigelman, “Presidential Inaugurals: The Modernization of a Genre,” Political Communication 13 (1996): 81.
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40. Vanessa Beasley, “The Rhetoric of Ideological Consensus in the United States: American Principles and Ame…
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41. Michael Leff, “Dimensions of Temporality in Lincoln’s Second Inaugural,” Communication Reports 1 (1988): 26–31.
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42. For an overview on Roosevelt’s use of religious imagery, see Suzanne M. Daughton, “Metaphorical Transcend…
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43. Robert L. Ivie, “Dwight D. Eisenhower’s ‘Chance for Peace’ Quest or Crusade?” Rhetoric & Public Affairs 1…
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44. Denise M. Bostdorff, "George W. Bush's Post-September 11 Rhetoric of Covenant Renewal: Upholding the Fait…
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and Susan Jacoby, Freethinkers: A History of American Secularism (New York: Metropolitan Books, 2004), 2-3.
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45. See Bellah, “Civil Religion”; Beasley, You, the People, 46–67; Coe and Domke, God Strategy; Robert D. Lin…
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46. Karlyn Kohrs Campbell and Kathleen Hall Jamieson, Presidents Creating the Presidency: Deeds Done in Words…
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47. Sigelman, “Presidential Inaugurals,” 81–92.
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48. Bellah, “Civil Religion,” 13.
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49. Coe and Domke, “Petitioners or Prophets? Presidential Discourse, God, and the Ascendancy of Religious Con…
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50. Gene Zubovich, “The Strange, Short Career of Judeo-Christianity,” Aeon, March 22, 2016, https://aeon.co/i…
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51. Ronald Oakley, God’s Country: America in the Fifties (New York: Pantheon Books, 1986), 319–27; and Pierar…
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52. Moore and Kramnick, Godless Citizens, xv–xvi; and Niose, Nonbeliever Nation, 24–27, 80–81, and 118–22. Al…
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53. For an overview of the various religious influences on presidents and their policies from Roosevelt to Tr…
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54. Philip Wander, “The Third Persona: An Ideological Turn in Rhetorical Theory,” Central States Speech Journ…
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55. An example of nontheistnormative religious political rhetoric can be found in President George W. Bush’s …
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56. “The people” are rhetorically defined into existence. When the rhetoric that constitutes them ceases to e…
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57. Pierard and Linder, Civil Religion, 163.
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58. Wicker, The Simple Faith of Franklin Delano Roosevelt, 115–16.
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59. Wicker, The Simple Faith of Franklin Delano Roosevelt, 115–16.
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60. Campbell and Jamieson, Presidents Creating the Presidency, 34.
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61. Franklin D. Roosevelt, “Inaugural Address,” online by Gerhard Peters and John T. Woolley, American Presid…
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62. Franklin D. Roosevelt, “Inaugural Address,” online by Gerhard Peters and John T. Woolley, American Presid…
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63. John Wilson, Politically Speaking: The Pragmatic Analysis of Political Language (Oxford, U.K.: Blackwell,…
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64. Harry S. Truman, “Inaugural Address,” online by Gerhard Peters and John T. Woolley, American Presidency P…
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65. Ellis, To the Flag, 121–52; and Kruse, One Nation Under God, 95–125.
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66. Dwight D. Eisenhower, “Second Inaugural Address,” online by Gerhard Peters and John T. Woolley, American …
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67. Richard Nixon, “Inaugural Address,” online by Gerhard Peters and John T. Woolley, American Presidency Pro…
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68. Ronald Reagan, “Inaugural Address,” online by Gerhard Peters and John T. Woolley, American Presidency Pro…
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69. Ronald Reagan, “Inaugural Address,” online by Gerhard Peters and John T. Woolley, American Presidency Pro…
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70. Ellis, To the Flag, 175–78.
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71. The argument that an atheist American is a “contradiction of terms” was promoted by George Docherty in hi…
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72. Dwight D. Eisenhower, “Inaugural Address,” online by Gerhard Peters and John T. Woolley, American Preside…
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73. George Bush, “Inaugural Address,” online by Gerhard Peters and John T. Woolley, American Presidency Proje…
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74. John R. Searle, “A Classification of Illocutionary Acts,” Language in Society 5 (1976): 3.
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75. Such requests worked as a double bind for atheists. According to the Saturday Review reporter David L. Co…
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76. Reagan, “Inaugural Address,” 1985.
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77. Truman, “Inaugural Address”; Eisenhower, “Inaugural Address,” 1953; Richard Nixon, “Oath of Office and Se…
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78. Franklin D. Roosevelt, “Inaugural Address,” online by Gerhard Peters and John T. Woolley, American Presid…
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79. There were atheists who opposed normalized public prayer during the twentieth century. Most notably, Mada…
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80. Phil Zuckerman demonstrates why the assumption that religion is a necessity for the moral and general suc…
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81. Dwight D. Eisenhower, Mandate for Change (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday and Company, 1963), 100.
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82. “Religious Views of Both Candidates Told in Statements Compiled by Church Paper,” Washington Post, Septem…
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83. Samuel A. Stouffer, Communism, Conformity, and Civil Liberties: A Cross-Section of the Nation Speaks Its …
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84. Jacoby, Freethinkers, 231; and Niose, Nonbeliever Nation, 81.
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85. While the Religious Right became dominant in the 1980s, there have been numerous religious movements thro…
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86. Wilcox, Onward Christian Soldiers, 36; J. Brooks Flippen, Jimmy Carter, the Politics of Family, and the R…
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87. Domke and Coe, The God Strategy, 48.
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88. Jimmy Carter, “Inaugural Address,” online by Gerhard Peters and John T. Woolley, American Presidency Proj…
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89. See, Martin, With God on Our Side, 77–78, 86, 192, and 232.
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90. While the Religious Right would eventually become disenchanted by Reagan as well and conclude that his re…
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91. Reagan, “Inaugural Address,” 1981.
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92. Niose, Nonbeliever Nation, 25.
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93. Linder, “Universal Pastor,” 742–49.
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94. Clinton, “Inaugural Address,” 1993.
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95. Bush, “Inaugural Address,” 2001.
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96. While Bush did not dedicate major funds to his faith-based initiatives, he provided heightened publicity …
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97. George W. Bush, “Inaugural Address,” online by Gerhard Peters and John T. Woolley, American Presidency Pr…
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98. Wilcox, Onward Christian Soldiers, 19.
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99. Campbell and Jamieson, Presidents Creating the Presidency, 36.
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100. John F. Kennedy, “Inaugural Address,” online by Gerhard Peters and John T. Woolley, American Presidency …
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101. Bellah, “Civil Religion,” 4.
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102. Truman, “Inaugural Address.”
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103. Eisenhower, “Inaugural Address,” 1953.
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104. Obama, “Inaugural Address,” 2009.
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105. Barack Obama, “Inaugural Address,” online by Gerhard Peters and John T. Woolley, American Presidency Pro…
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106. Arguably, modern presidents are simply reiterating the rhetoric of the Founding Fathers. However, the Fo…
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107. David Frank, “Obama’s Rhetorical Signature: Cosmopolitan Civil Religion in the Presidential Inaugural Ad…
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108. Bellah, “Civil Religion,” 3.
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109. Roosevelt, “Inaugural Address,” 1945; Eisenhower, “Inaugural Address,” 1953; Kennedy, “Inaugural Address…
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110. Johnson, “Inaugural Address.”
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111. Johnson, “Inaugural Address.”
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112. Donald J. Trump, “Inaugural Address,” online by Gerhard Peters and John T. Woolley, American Presidency …
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113. Campbell and Jamieson, Presidents Creating the Presidency, 45.
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114. Domke and Coe, The God Strategy, 48.
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115. Joseph H. Hammer et al., “Forms, Frequency, and Correlates of Perceived Anti-Atheist Discrimination,” Se…
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116. Hammer et al., “Forms, Frequency, and Correlates,” 54.
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117. Hammer et al., “Forms, Frequency, and Correlates,” 55.
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118. Will M. Gervais, Azim F. Shariff, and Ara Norenzayan, “Do You Believe in Atheists? Distrust Is Central t…
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119. “Atheists, Muslims See Most Bias as Presidential Candidates,” Gallup, June 21, 2012, http://www.gallup.c…
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120. “Declaration of Rights: Articles 36–37,” Constitution of Maryland, November 6, 2018, https://msa.marylan…
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121. Loren and Rambo, “God Smites You!” 450.
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122. In 1978, Roderick P. Hart wrote about why the rhetoric of “popular” atheism fails. While Hart recognized…
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123. Wilcox, Onward Christian Soldiers, 110.
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124. Jack Jenkins, “Why All of the Atheists in Congress Are Closeted,” Think Progress, August 26, 2014, https…
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125. Patricia Hill Collins, "Intersections of Race, Class, Gender, and Nation: Some Implications for Black Fa…
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and Kimberle Crenshaw, "Mapping the Margins: Intersectionality, Identity Politics, and Violence against Women…
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126. Charles E. Morris III, “Pink Herring and the Fourth Persona: J. Edgar Hoover’s Sex Crime Panic,” Quarter…
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127. Michael Lipka, “10 Facts about Atheists,” Pew Research Center, June 1, 2016, https://www.pewresearch.org…
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128. Ashley F. Miller, “The Non-religious Patriarchy: Why Losing Religion Has Not Meant Losing White Male Dom…
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129. Beasley, “Rhetoric of Ideological Consensus,” 172.
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130. Beasley, “Rhetoric of Ideological Consensus,” 181.
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131. Moore and Kramnick, Godless Citizens, 107
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132. Richard Wayne Lee, “Strained Bedfellows: Pagans, New Agers, and ‘Starchy Humanists’ in Unitarian Univers…
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133. Campbell and Jamieson, Presidents Creating the Presidency, 36.