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References (99) · 3 in this index
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1. See "Peace and Amnesty Declared in the Philippines," Boston Globe, July 4, 1902, 1
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A Compilation of the Messages and Speeches of Theodore Roosevelt, 1901-1905, ed. Alfred H. Lewis (Washington,…
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2. For an overview of this debate, see Frank Schumacher, “‘Marked Severities’: The Debate over Torture during…
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3. Francis Lieber, “General Orders No. 100: The Lieber Code,” Avalon Project: Documents in Law, History and D…
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4. Moorfıeld Storey and Julian Codman, Secretary Root’s Record–“Marked Severities” in Philippine Warfare: An …
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5. “Peace and Amnesty.”
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6. See Storey and Codman, “Marked Severities,” 33–40. Root also supported his claims for military righteousne…
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7. Jonathan Hyslop, “The Invention of the Concentration Camp: Cuba, Southern Africa and the Philippines, 1896…
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8. Elihu Root, “Francis Lieber,” American Journal of International Law 7 (1913): 459.
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9. For an overview of Lieber’s life and the code’s influence, see Frank Freidel, Francis Lieber: Nineteenth-C…
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10. Freidel describes how “Union commanders and military governors seem to have attached relatively little im…
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11. Freidel, “General Orders 100,” 555–56. See also Joseph G. Dawson III, “The First of the Modern Wars?” in …
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12. This new war rhetoric shifted attention away from a limited focus on the legal meaning of individual batt…
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and Lass Francis Oppenheimer, International Law: A Treatise Volume 1, 2nd ed. (New York: Longmans, Green and …
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13. Geoffrey Best, Humanity in Warfare, 171.
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14. Best, Humanity in Warfare, 129.
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Rhetoric & Public Affairs
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16. It bears emphasizing that I do not believe these elements were necessarily intentional on Lieber’s part, …
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17. Hugh Bicheno defınes “total war” as “one in which the whole population and all the resources of the comba…
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18. This is a point that has been more commonly analyzed through later conflicts, such as the National Securi…
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19. The topic of warfare is ubiquitous in the history of Western rhetorical studies. Aristotle identifıes war…
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20. The codes were foundational in constructing legal parameters of war in the ensuing decades, including the…
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21. For a comparative look at this process from the Alien and Sedition Acts to the Espionage Act to the Patri…
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22. Mark E. Neely, “Was the Civil War a Total War?” Civil War History 50 (2004): 434-58. For more on the deba…
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23. Neely, “Was the Civil War a Total War?”
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24. Roger Stahl highlights how the rhetoric of temporality informs war discourse by identifying tropes that s…
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25. Edwin Black, "Gettysburg and Silence," Quarterly Journal of Speech 80 (1994): 22. In the fıeld of history…
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Michael Leff, "Dimensions of Temporality in Lincoln's Second Inaugural," Communication Reports 1 (1988): 26-31
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Philosophy & Rhetoric
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Rhetoric & Public Affairs
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27. A fuller understanding of the argumentative terrain of military violence can help trace the legacy of the…
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28. John Fabian Witt, Lincoln’s Code: The Laws of War in American History (New York: Free Press, 2012).
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29. D. H. Dilbeck, A More Civil War: How the Union Waged a Just War (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolin…
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30. While Witt does note Lieber’s reliance on the notion of “military necessity,” I try to consider the rheto…
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31. Dilbeck, A More Civil War, 69.
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32. Witt, Dilbeck, and Freidel observe these features in Lieber’s Code, but my focus is on how the text serve…
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33. Dilbeck, “‘The Genesis of This Little Tablet with My Name’: Francis Lieber and the Wartime Origins of Gen…
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34. Hogue, “Lieber’s Code,” xvi.
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35. Dilbeck emphasizes the moral focus of Lieber’s Code, “Genesis,” 247. Andrew F. Lang similarly notes the p…
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36. Recent scholarship on the history of military law points to the nineteenth century as a key period of tra…
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37. John Childs, Warfare in the Seventeenth Century (London: Cassell, 2016); and Gunther E. Rothenberg, Napol…
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38. Lieber, “General Orders No. 100,” Articles 1–4.
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39. Lieber, “General Orders No. 100,” Article 1.
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40. In the context of the Civil War, Lieber’s degree of clarity is reasonable—the “explicit act” had been the…
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41. Lieber, “General Orders No. 100,” Article 1.
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42. Lieber, “General Orders No. 100,” Article 2.
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43. Lieber, “General Orders No. 100,” Article 5.
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44. Lieber, “General Orders No. 100,” Article 7.
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45. Lieber, “General Orders No. 100,” Article 4.
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46. Lieber, “General Orders No. 100,” Article 4.
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47. Lieber, “General Orders No. 100,” Article 30.
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48. Lieber, “General Orders No. 100,” Article 5.
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49. Lieber, “General Orders No. 100,” Article 30.
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50. Lieber, “General Orders No. 100,” Article 29.
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51. Lieber makes frequent use of the “organic” as a political metaphor, stressing the interdependent nature o…
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52. Lieber, “General Orders No. 100,” Article 15.
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53. Lieber, “General Orders No. 100,” Article 15.
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54. Lieber, “General Orders No. 100,” Article 15.
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55. Lieber, “General Orders No. 100,” Article 15.
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56. Lieber, “General Orders No. 100,” Article 15. See also Articles 29 and 138.
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57. Dilbeck, A More Civil War, 69–96. Dilbeck describes how Lieber’s call for a fast war is constitutive of h…
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58. As cited in Dilbeck, A More Civil War, 88.
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59. Lieber, “General Orders No. 100,” Article 16.
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60. Lieber, “General Orders No. 100,” Article 30.
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61. Lieber, “General Orders No. 100,” Article 17.
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62. Lieber, “General Orders No. 100,” Article 18.
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63. Lieber, “General Orders No. 100,” Article 19.
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64. Lieber, “General Orders No. 100,” Article 60.
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65. Lieber, “General Orders No. 100,” Article 12.
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66. Lieber, “General Orders No. 100,” Article 28.
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67. Lieber, “General Orders No. 100,” Article 28.
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68. We can see such behavior more clearly exhibited in later wars. James T. Sparrow illuminates the mechanism…
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69. Lieber, “General Orders No. 100,” Article 23.
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70. Lieber, “General Orders No. 100,” Article 23.
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71. Lieber, “General Orders No. 100,” Article 8.
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72. Lieber, “General Orders No. 100,” Article 44.
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73. For a survey of how nonviolence can be creatively enacted as an alternative to violence, see Gene Sharpe,…
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74. Lieber, “General Orders No. 100,” Article 20.
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75. Whitman, Verdict of Battle.
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76. See Lieber, “No Party Now;” and Lieber, “What Is Our Constitution?” The term “organic war” may be more hi…
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77. Lieber, “General Orders No. 100,” Article 50.
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78. Lieber, “General Orders No. 100,” Article 86.
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79. Lieber, “No Party Now.”
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80. Lieber, “General Orders No. 100,” Article 88.
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81. Lieber, “General Orders No. 100,” Article 90.
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82. Lieber, “General Orders No. 100,” Article 155.
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83. Abraham Lincoln to Erastus Corning and Others, in The Writings of Abraham Lincoln, ed. Steven B. Smith (N…
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84. Lieber, “General Orders No. 100,” Article 157.
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85. Lieber, “General Orders No. 100,” Article 156. Note this article is in a section qualifıed as specifıcall…
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86. For a rich survey of the social and cultural defınitions of loyalty during this time, see Blair, With Mal…
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87. See W. Michael Reisman and Chris Anthony, The Laws of War: A Comprehensive Collection of Primary Document…
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88. Witt, Lincoln’s Codes; Dilbeck, A More Civil War; and Freidel, “General Orders 100.”
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89. Dilbeck, A More Civil War; and John Fabian Witt, Lincoln’s Code.
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90. Lieber, “No Party Now;” and Lieber “What Is Our Constitution?”
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91. Referencing Article 156 of the Lieber Code, Union Major General Robert H. Milroy and Major General Robert…
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92. For a model of such scholarship, see Downs and Masur, The World the Civil War Made.
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93. Freidel, “General Orders No. 100.”
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94. Downs and Masur describe the postemancipation bureaucratic system as a “stockade state”; The World the Ci…
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95. Abraham Lincoln to John M. Schofıeld, October 1, 1863 in Collected Works of Abraham Lincoln Volume 6. Ava…