Assessing Writing Jan 2026 Open Access

The effects of online resource use on L2 learners’ computer-mediated writing processes and written products

Honglan Wang Chinese University of Hong Kong ; Jookyoung Jung Chinese University of Hong Kong

Abstract

While previous studies on online resource use in L2 writing have focused on the overall writing quality, limited attention has been paid to its effects on linguistic complexity and real-time writing processes. Addressing this gap, the present study explored how online resource use influences both the processes and products of L2 writing. Forty-nine intermediate L2 learners completed two computer-mediated argumentative writing tasks, either with or without the use of online resources. Writing behaviors were captured via keystroke logging and screen recording, and analyzed for search activity, fluency, pausing, and revision quantity. Cognitive processes were examined through stimulated recall interviews, and written products were evaluated for both quality and linguistic complexity. The results showed that participants spent an average of 14 % of task time using online resources, with considerable individual variation. Mixed-effects modeling revealed that resource use facilitated the production of more sophisticated words, with marginal influence on writing quality or syntactic complexity. Resource use was also associated with longer between-word pauses, fewer within-word pauses, and reduced revisions. These findings highlight the potential of online resource use to enhance the authenticity of L2 writing assessment tasks without compromising test validity, while encouraging the use of more advanced vocabulary in writing. • Learners spent 14 % of the total writing task time using online resources. • Online resource use had no significant impact on L2 writing quality. • Online resource use improved lexical sophistication, not syntactic complexity. • Online resource use reduced within-word pauses and aided spelling retrieval. • Online resource use led to fewer revisions but did not affect fluency.

Journal
Assessing Writing
Published
2026-01-01
DOI
10.1016/j.asw.2025.100994
CompPile
Search in CompPile ↗
Open Access
OA PDF Hybrid
Topics
revision argument assessment digital rhetoric multilingual writers grammar and mechanics affect and writing
Export
BibTeX RIS

Citation Context

Cited by in this index (0)

No articles in this index cite this work.

References (52) · 4 in this index

  1. Bachman (2010)
    Language assessment in practice
  2. Barkaoui (2019)
    What can L2 writers’ pausing behavior tell us about their L2 writing processes?
    Studies in Second Language Acquisition  ↗
  3. Bates, D., Kliegl, R., Vasishth, S., & Baayen, H. (2015). Parsimonious mixed models. arXiv preprint arXiv:150…
  4. Bates, D., Maechler, M., Bolker, B., Walker, S., Christensen, R., Singmann, H., & Dai, B. (2025). lme4: Linea…
  5. Chambers (2004)
    Corpus consultation and advanced learners’ writing skills in French
    ReCALL  ↗
Show all 52 →
  1. Chapelle (2010)
    The spread of computer-assisted language learning
    Language Teaching  ↗
  2. CHENOWETH et al. (2001)
    Fluency in Writing: Generating Text in L1 and L2
    Written Communication
  3. Cobb, T. (2023). VocabProfilers. Available from 〈http://www.lextutor.ca/vp/eng〉 .
  4. Coxhead (2000)
    A new academic word list
    TESOL Quarterly  ↗
  5. Crossley (2014)
    Does writing development equal writing quality? A computational investigation of syntacti…
    Journal of Second Language Writing  ↗
  6. Dekeyser (2001)
    Automaticity and automatization
    Cognition and Second Language Instruction
  7. East (2008)
    Dictionary use in foreign language writing exams: Impact and implications
  8. Frankenberg-Garcia (2005)
    A peek into what today’s language learners as researchers actually do
    International Journal of Lexicography  ↗
  9. Gánem-Gutiérrez (2021)
    A mixed methods case study on the use and impact of web-based lexicographic tools on L2 writing
    Computer Assisted Language Learning  ↗
  10. Gass (2000)
    Stimulated recall methodology in second language research
  11. Barton, K. (2025). MuMIn: Multi-model inference. R Package Version 1.48.11. Available from 〈http://cran.r-pro…
  12. Gilquin (2021)
    The use of online writing tools by learners of English: Evidence from a process corpus
    International Journal of Lexicography  ↗
  13. Hair (2010)
    Multivariate Data Analysis
  14. IBM Corp (2020). IBM SPSS Statistics for Windows (Version 27.0). Armonk, NY: IBM Corp. Available from 〈https:…
  15. Jespersen (2021)
    Response processes in L2 writing tasks with Internet access
    Apples - Journal of Applied Language Studies  ↗
  16. Jung (2017)
    Effects of task complexity on L2 writing processes and linguistic complexity: A keystroke…
    English Teaching  ↗
  17. Jung (2020)
    Effects of content support on integrated reading-writing task performance and incidental …
    System  ↗
  18. Kellogg (1996)
    A model of working memory in writing
    The science of writing. Theories, methods, individual differences and applications
  19. Khuder et al. (2015)
    Writing in Test and Non-test Situations: Process and Product
    Journal of Writing Research
  20. Kormos (2011)
    Task complexity and linguistic and discourse features of narrative writing performance
    Journal of Second Language Writing  ↗
  21. Krashen (1981)
    Second language acquisition and second language learning
  22. Landis (1977)
    The measurement of observer agreement for categorical data
    Biometrics  ↗
  23. Laufer (1998)
    The development of passive and active vocabulary in a second language: Same or different?
    Applied Linguistics  ↗
  24. Leijten et al. (2013)
    Keystroke Logging in Writing Research: Using Inputlog to Analyze and Visualize …
    Written Communication
  25. Leijten et al. (2014)
    Writing in the workplace: Constructing documents using multiple digital sources
    Journal of Writing Research
  26. López-Serrano (2019)
    Language reflection fostered by individual L2 writing tasks
    Studies in Second Language Acquisition  ↗
  27. Lu (2010)
    Automatic analysis of syntactic complexity in second language writing
    International Journal of Corpus Linguistics  ↗
  28. Lu (2012)
    The relationship of lexical richness to the quality of ESL learners’ oral narratives
    Modern Language Journal  ↗
  29. McCarthy (2010)
    MTLD, vocd-D, and HD-D: A validation study of sophisticated approaches to lexical diversi…
    Behavior Research Methods  ↗
  30. McNamara (2014)
    Automated evaluation of text and discourse with Coh-Metrix
  31. Michel (2020)
    Investigating L2 writing processes across independent and integrated tasks: A mixed-metho…
    Second Language Research  ↗
  32. Norris (2009)
    Towards an organic approach to investigating CAF in instructed SLA: The case of complexity
    Applied Linguistics  ↗
  33. Oh (2020)
    Second language learners’ use of writing resources in writing assessment
    Language Assessment Quarterly  ↗
  34. Oh (2022)
    The use of spelling and reference tools in second language writing: Their impact on stude…
    Journal of Second Language Writing
  35. Plonsky (2018)
    Multiple regression in L2 research: A methodological synthesis and guide to interpreting …
    Modern Language Journal  ↗
  36. Prior (1998)
    Writing/disciplinarity: A sociohistoric account of literate activity in the academy
  37. Pusey (2024)
    Exploring the interaction among writing fluency, writing processes, and external resource…
    Computers and Composition
  38. R Core Team. (2024). R: A language and environment for statistical computing. Vienna, Austria: Foundation for…
  39. Révész (2017)
    Effects of task complexity on L2 writing behaviors and linguistic complexity
    Language Learning  ↗
  40. Rong (2025)
    The effects of task complexity on second language writing processes and products in compu…
    Journal of Second Language Writing
  41. Shin (2021)
    The effect of using online language-support resources on L2 writing performance
    Language Testing in Asia  ↗
  42. Spelman Miller (2000)
    Academic writers on-line: Investigating pausing in the production of text
    Language Teaching Research  ↗
  43. Tian (2025)
    Exploring the application of keystroke logging techniques to research in second language …
    Research Methods in Applied Linguistics  ↗
  44. VERBI Software (2021). MAXQDA 2022. Berlin, Germany: VERBI Software. Available from 〈https://www.maxqda.com〉 .
  45. Xu (2014)
    An exploratory study of pauses in computer-assisted EFL writing
    Language Learning and Technology  ↗
  46. Yoon (2016)
    Concordancers and dictionaries as problem-solving tools for ESL academic writing
    Language Learning and Technology  ↗
  47. Zhi (2021)
    Investigating the authenticity of computer- and paper-based ESL writing tests
    Assessing Writing
CrossRef global citation count: 0 View in citation network → Build reading path →

Related Articles

  1. IEEE Transactions on Professional Communication Sep 2024
    Positive Evaluation in the Translation of Online Promotional Discourse in the Cheese Industry ↗
    Belén Labrador; Noelia Ramón
    discourse analysis argument assessment professional writing multilingual writers grammar and mechanics affect and writing book reviews
  2. Teaching English in the Two-Year College Sep 1998
    What Works For Me: Comp–ardy ↗
    writing pedagogy teacher development revision argument assessment digital rhetoric grammar and mechanics
  3. Assessing Writing Jan 2026
    How reliable and valid is peer evaluation in adolescents’ L2 argumentative writing? ↗
    Albert W. Li; Steve Graham
    writing pedagogy teacher development argument assessment multilingual writers grammar and mechanics literacy studies
  4. Assessing Writing Jan 2026
    Is it beneficial to strive for perfection in writing?: Exploring the relationship between perfectionism, motivational regulation, and second language (L2) writing performance ↗
    Li Dong
    argument multilingual writers grammar and mechanics affect and writing
  5. Philosophy & Rhetoric Apr 2025
    Aristotle: Art of Rhetoric ↗
    Peter A. O’Connell
    classical rhetoric modern rhetorical theory rhetorical criticism revision argument multilingual writers grammar and mechanics public rhetoric editorial matter