Usability testing and documentation review are vital components of every documentation release cycle; yet some project timelines and budgets overlook these essentials. The art history process of material culture analysis can help alleviate this oversight. Applied to documentation, material culture analysis can provide insight into the writer's personal values to expose potentially detrimental mismatches between the values of the writer and of the intended audience.

We report on an exploratory experimental comparison of two different thinking aloud approaches in a usability test that focused on navigation problems in a highly nonstandard Web site. One approach is a rigid application of Ericsson and Simon's (for original paper see Protocol Analysis: Verbal Reports as Data, MIT Press (1993)) procedure. The other is derived from Boren and Ramey's (for original paper see ibid., vol. 43, no. 3, p. 261-278 (2000)) proposal based on speech communication. The latter approach differs from the former in that the experimenter has more room for acknowledging (mm-hmm) contributions from subjects and has the possibility of asking for clarifications and offering encouragement. Comparing the verbal reports obtained with these two methods, we find that the process of thinking aloud while carrying out tasks is not affected by the type of approach that was used. The task performance does differ. More tasks were completed in the B and R condition, and subjects were less lost. Nevertheless, subjects' evaluations of the Web site quality did not differ, nor did the number of different navigation problems that were detected.

Several information systems and computer-mediated communication studies in the literature measure user's perceptions of E-mail. The user's perceptions of E-mail were used to develop and validate the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM). While a user's perceptions of E-mail play an important role in the literature, very few studies have focused solely on developing a construct for measuring these perceptions. In this paper, we develop a construct to measure an individual's perceptions of E-mail as a medium for electronic communication in organizations. Using a survey of management and nonmanagement employees in northeastern USA, we empirically test our theoretical construct. The results of our research indicate that an individual's perceptions of E-mail are a multidimensional construct with two dimensions: the individual level dimension and the organizational level. At an individual level, a person's perceptions may be impacted by E-mail's role in improving productivity, supporting team work, and providing global reach. At an organizational level a person's perceptions may be impacted by E-mail's role in making an organization vulnerable to viruses, exposing proprietary information, and/or encouraging unprofessional and illegal behavior.

Information-technology managers at United States companies are likely to be affected by recent legislation in the European Union and in Canada that restricts the transfer of citizens' personal information to countries that do not protect that information adequately. We argue that, from both ethical and pragmatic perspectives, USA businesses should reject the voluntary, self-certifying approach to data protection currently in favor in the United States. USA businesses should advocate instead for a European approach that mandates stronger data protection and establishes a government agency charged with enforcing it. If the USA adopted a European approach to data privacy, USA businesses would attract more customers and avoid the legal problems that are likely to result when European and Canadian data-privacy authorities begin to enforce their new laws vigorously.

This paper presents a study of trust development in online courses. It reviews the concept of swift trust and examines changes in faculty roles as professors go online. An exploratory content analysis looks at indicators of the development of swift trust in the highest rated of a large number of online courses studied over a three year period, and contrasts these results with one of the poorest rated online courses. Establishing swift trust at the beginning of an online course appears to be related to subsequent course success. Strategies for trust formation are also suggested.

While there have been measurable improvements in the technical development of multimedia, research from a socio-technical viewpoint suggests that the benefits of multimedia technology, especially in fulfilling user requirements, do not always live up to initial promises. This paper aims to address one of the fundamental but often neglected areas in user requirements, i.e., gender-related issues. The paper identifies and discusses gender differences in multimedia communication and recommends how the differences can be addressed. It proposes a model for accommodating gender differences in multimedia communication.

Background. As they guide people in performing a task, procedures are the heart of most manuals. It is, therefore, somewhat surprising that the theoretical and empirical knowledge of their nature has remained somewhat elusive. This paper describes a theoretical framework for procedures, summarized as the four components model, which is grounded in systems theory and rhetoric. Aim. The study addresses two research questions: (1) What are procedures made of? and (2) Which design guidelines for procedures can be abstracted from theory and research? Results. The model distinguishes between: goals, prerequisite states, unwanted states (warnings and problem-solving information), and actions and reactions. For each component pertinent research findings are summarized and lead to the formulation of design guidelines. Occasionally these guidelines are compared with existing procedures from a sample of 104 manuals to see how well theory and practice agree. Conclusion. The model offers a manageable and expandable framework for creating user support that is based on scientific research. It can be used for a systematic analysis of procedures and for their (re)design.

An experiment was carried out to investigate whether it is useful to add system information to procedural information in instructional text. It was assumed that readers of instructions construct both a procedural and a system mental model, and that the latter enables the readers to infer possible missing information in procedural instructions. Moreover, it was assumed that system information would increase the cognitive load during reading and practicing, and that it would affect the appreciation of the instructions as well as the self-efficacy of the reader. The participants in the experiment read instructions and practiced with a fictitious machine before performing a number of tasks and answering a questionnaire. The results indicate that system information increased the cognitive load during reading and decreased self-efficacy, while the instructional text with system information was judged as more difficult. The effect on performance is limited: system information leads to faster performance for correctly completed tasks.

The author emphasizes the role of data-driven corpus-based methodology that promotes the study of natural language on examples of real life language use in teaching English for Specific Purposes (ESP), such as Engineering English. This approach can improve the way Engineering English is taught and add more creativity in ESP classes. In particular, the author demonstrates how vocabulary teaching in the ESP context can benefit from a corpus-based approach. She addresses the issue of technical and sub-/nontechnical vocabulary with characteristic examples from teaching situations in Southeast Asia. It is argued that sub-/nontechnical vocabulary should be given more attention in the ESP classrooms than technical vocabulary. Surprisingly, sub-/nontechnical words seem to cause more problems for ESP students specializing in technical fields than technical terms. It is also claimed that the availability of specialist language corpora and computerized text analysis (i.e., concordancing) programs can help learners acquire what D. Bolinger (1976) called "the prefabs of language," or formulaic multiword units (collocations), for technical and nontechnical uses.

This experiment tested the effect of access to an object's affordances on the development of an accurate situation model of procedural texts. The 40 participants read two sets of instructions while either doing the task or only reading the text. They then rated each sentence in terms of its difficulty and the type(s) of problem(s) it had (if any), and told how they would fix the problem(s). As predicted, participants who did the task tended to notice improperly ordered sentences, whereas those who only read the text (without seeing the device) tended to focus on grammatical problems. The results were consistent with the indexical hypothesis of Glenberg and Robertson (Glenberg, 1999).

Guidelines and models for procedural instructions can be supported by three types of research. Careful analytical studies of collections of instructions can help to identify, describe, and evaluate strategies that writers and designers apply. Empirical studies measure the effects of document variables on the performance of users, thus offering evidence, contraevidence, or refinements for existing guidelines. Theoretical studies, finally, aim to describe and explain the behavior of readers of instructions. To designers and writers, they provide a deeper insight in the underlying cognitive processes that determine success or failure of their work. This special issue offers research articles in all three categories.

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As an analysis tool for systems' development, participatory design (PD) is based on the claim that users should be regarded as experts when they enter the design process. However, experience proved that this "expertise" happens in different degrees and that, in a large-scale system, it is hard to find the real experts among a crowd of thousands of users. PD demands a constant interaction between user and designer, and this could be the source of quality feedback to improve the interface. Nevertheless, how can users send good feedback when dealing with a transnational system designed for thousands of clients in different countries? This scenario will be more common in a computerized world in which stand-alone programs are being replaced by Web applications that can be accessed worldwide through a browser. This represents a severe threat to PD's intentions, and in order to survive, this method will have to merge with larger scope research techniques and then-through random sampling that represents the diverse, international body of users-obtain user feedback. Just like in mass communication models, when it is not possible to listen to every spectator and the "letters to the editor" get lost in a big box, quality will yield to quantity in user feedback.

Acquiring procedural knowledge cannot be done by simply reading about a new task domain; learners need to act within this domain and to interpret the results of their actions. One way to stimulate learners to perform fruitful actions is providing them with exercises. In this study, we contrasted two types of exercises for learners of a spreadsheet program: problem-solving exercises, providing learners with a well-defined goal, and (minimalist) on-your-own-exercises, inviting learners to explore options independently. On the basis of prior research, we expected exercise type to interact with the level of goal orientation. We assumed that learners with an ill-defined goal would profit more from problem-solving exercises, while learners with a better-defined goal would profit more from on-your-own sections. In order to test this hypothesis, we asked 60 people to become acquainted with the spreadsheet program Quattro Pro. Half of the participants worked with a (minimalist) tutorial that contained problem-solving exercises; the other half worked with a tutorial that contained on your own-sections. Goal orientation was operationalized by manipulating the task instruction the participants received before the training. Half of them received an open task instruction. This instruction asked them to imagine that they needed to get familiar with Quattro Pro in view of their activities as a committee member of a gymnastic club. The other half received a more specified instruction. These participants were asked to imagine that they needed to get familiar with Quattro Pro in order to be able to make the league tables for their gymnastic club. Furthermore, this task instruction specified the requirements these league tables should meet. After the training, the participants performed two tests: a skill test (consisting of some problem-solving tasks and an open task) and a knowledge test. About one week later, they performed these tests again. During the training and skill tests, participants were asked to think aloud. The results of the knowledge and skill tests confirmed our hypothesis. The two conditions that were expected to be beneficial (open task instruction + problem-solving exercises and specified task instruction + on-your-own sections) performed better than the conditions that were expected to be unhelpful (open task instruction + on-your-own sections and specified task instruction + problem-solving exercises). In order to achieve a better understanding of both exercise types, we also analyzed the participants' learning processes, especially the stages in which they were confronted with exercises. These analyses do not reveal clear explanations, but they do offer interesting ideas for further research.

In order to improve the design of procedural instructions, technical writers need to know how users proceed when they are using them, from their initial reading, to execute described actions. Several kinds of activities are implicated, such as reading with understanding, action planning, carrying out specific actions, and executive control activities. This paper proposes that by taking into account design factors that affect these activities, technical writers can markedly improve the design of procedural documents. Thus, a model is suggested that combines information on how users deal with procedural documents when faced with new equipment and the mental processes involved in this interaction, together with document design recommendations aimed at enhancing the interactions between users, documents, and equipment.

Ideally, illustrations for procedural documents should show actions from the point of view of performers, especially if performers' bodies need to be positioned a particular way to perform actions. At the same time, illustrations also should ameliorate the limits of two-dimensional displays (such as the printed page or electronic screen) by showing bodies, objects, and movements across the display plane. These two requirements may conflict, possibly necessitating use of compromise views.

No abstract available.

Results are presented from an assessment of student perceptions of collaborative writing practices before and after taking an upper division professional writing class. While most of the classes introduced students to these writing practices, several did not. The assessment was both quantitative and qualitative. Whether or not they had prior experience in the classroom, all students generally reported that they are likely to seek out opportunities to use both peer review and collaborative writing processes once they enter the workplace. However, students who are exposed to these practices in a classroom setting are more likely to report that they intend to continue these practices in the workplace.

The article examines the use of electronic cases which is characterized by the use of the Web to improve teaching and learning in professional communication techniques. The approach presented provides a learning environment (the case) in which students draw from and contribute to an interactive resource of artifacts, so as to become actively involved in the day-to-day practices of a group. Furthermore, students must (based on their understanding of the artifacts) identify, communicate, and justify a course of action for the continued development of the organization. In this sense, students move beyond analyzing and responding to a traditionally narrated, historical case and instead become immersed in the process of "making sense" and communicating in an effort to render the organization for a number of audiences. Because it is computer mediated, the case affords the opportunity for students to more readily interact with a greater volume and wider range of information than can be transmitted through traditional hard-copy case studies.

A three-year field study of 17 courses, part of an undergraduate degree in information systems, compared the process and outcomes of three modes of delivery: totally online via asynchronous learning networks, traditional face-to-face courses, and sections using a mix of traditional and online activities. There were no significant differences in perceived learning by students associated with mode of delivery. Group collaboration and access to professors was perceived to be highest in mixed-mode sections, while convenience was rated highest in the distance sections. For online courses, there was generally a significant relationship between the hypothesized mediators (active participation, motivation, collaboration, access to the professor, and convenience) and perceived learning. Overall, the results of this study show that outcomes of online courses improved when professors structured them to support the growth of a learning community, by being available online to interact with students, and by using collaborative learning strategies.

This index covers all technical items - papers, correspondence, reviews, etc. - that appeared in this periodical during the year, and items from previous years that were commented upon or corrected in this year. Departments and other items may also be covered if they have been judged to have archival value. The Author Index contains the primary entry for each item, listed under the first author's name. The primary entry includes the coauthors' names, the title of the paper or other item, and its location, specified by the publication abbreviation, year, month, and inclusive pagination. The Subject Index contains entries describing the item under all appropriate subject headings, plus the first author's name, the publication abbreviation, month, and year, and inclusive pages. Note that the item title is found only under he primary entry in the Author Index.

This index covers all technical items - papers, correspondence, reviews, etc. - that appeared in this periodical during the year, and items from previous years that were commented upon or corrected in this year. Departments and other items may also be covered if they have been judged to have archival value. The Author Index contains the primary entry for each item, listed under the first author's name. The primary entry includes the coauthors' names, the title of the paper or other item, and its location, specified by the publication abbreviation, year, month, and inclusive pagination. The Subject Index contains entries describing the item under all appropriate subject headings, plus the first author's name, the publication abbreviation, month, and year, and inclusive pages. Note that the item title is found only under he primary entry in the Author Index.

The article examines the processses involved in essay-writing by comparing it with the the process by which organic chemistry synthesis schemes are solved. In the process of writing an essay, the author uses knowledge of vocabulary, syntax, and discourse to creatively organize and then produce a paper. In the process of generating a synthesis, the chemist uses knowledge of structure, functional group reactivity, and reaction mechanisms to creatively organize and then produce a synthesis. Both the writing of an essay and the design of an organic synthesis are goal-oriented, nonlinear, recursive activities that lead to a product that is greater than the sum of the individual elements involved in its creation.

The paper argues for using specialized collaborative writing (CW) tools to improve the results of distributed, Internet-based writing teams. The key features of collaborative tools that support enhanced coordination and group awareness are compared to existing writing tools. The first Internet-based CW tool, Collaboratus, is introduced, and its group features are compared with those of Microsoft Word. Next, theoretical propositions, hypotheses, and constructs are formulated to predict outcomes of distributed groups that use CW tools. A four-week-long synchronous-distributed experiment then compares the outcomes of Collaboratus and Word groups. Innovative measures show that Collaboratus groups generally experience better outcomes than Word groups, in terms of productivity, document quality, relationships, and communication, but not in terms of satisfaction. The results buttress the conclusion that Internet-based CW teams can benefit from specialized collaborative technologies that provide enhanced coordination, group awareness, and CW activity support.

Practitioners and academics both are subject to and participate in frequent reviews, but these reviews often fail to provide useful results. This article illustrates problems with reviews, identifies common purposes for reviews, and presents recommendations for reviewers and review-seekers.