Current scholarship indicates that most writing students read and make use of teachers’ written comments on their drafts and find some types of comments more helpful than others. But the research is unclear about which comments students find most useful and why. This article presents the results of a survey of 142 first- year college writing students’ perceptions about teacher comments on a writing sample. A 40-item questionnaire was used to investigate students’ reactions to three variables of teacher response: focus, specificity, and mode. The survey found that these college students seemed equally interested in getting responses on global matters of content, purpose, and organization as on local matters of sentence structure, wording, and correctness, but were wary of negative comments about ideas they had already expressed in their text. It also found that these students favored detailed commentary with specific and elaborated comments, but they did not like comments that sought to control their writing or that failed to provide helpful criticism for improving the writing. They most preferred comments that provided employed open questions, or included explanations that guided revision.

There has been considerable interest in using a genre-based approach to the teaching of language. Genre has been described as a property of texts which allows them to be described as a sequence of segments, or “moves,” with each move accomplishing some part of the overall communicative purpose of the text, while register can be thought of as the language and linguistic patterns of one particular genre. The purpose of this study was to find out whether the registers of different moves of one genre can be very different from each other. A corpus of 44 typical examples of the genre, “Brief Tourist Information,” was created. A computerized concordancing program was used to analyze the three moves, “Location,” “Facilities/ Activities,” and “Description” in terms of discourse functions, length, reader address, modality, idioms, lexical phrases, and common lexical items. A comparison of the structures and lexical items of the three moves showed clearly that while they shared a few functions, for the most part they differed substantially. The results suggest that language educators should consider 1) basing instructional materials on corpora of texts in use, 2) teaching the move structure of genres and the concomitant move registers rather than the general register of the genre as a whole, 3) integrating the teaching of reading and writing, and 4) adopting a “purpose approach” to the teaching of writing.

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Chinese students experience many difficulties in developing communicative competence in English in their English as a Foreign Language (EFL) courses in China. This essay provides cultural information that may be useful for researchers and American EFL teachers of Chinese-born students, in Chinese or American universities. It first reviews the pedagogical approaches used by native Chinese-speaking teachers of English in an educational environment grounded in Confucian precepts for teaching, learning, and educational roles and responsibilities. It suggests that many of the limitations on Chinese students’ learning of English stem from a traditional teacher-centeredc lassroom and the use of rote-memorys trategies. After noting the obstacles faced by Chinese EFL teachers who have tried to implement communicative approaches, this essay offers guidelines for reconciling a communicative approach with traditional Chinese methods

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This study describes a group of seventh graders’ experiences in learning to make and share meaning about literature through the creation of visual representations. This interpretatives trategy, known as “sketch-to-stretch,” involves learners in creating symbols, pictures, and other non-linguistic signs to signify ideas generated through reading. Over the course of a school year these students used sign systems from art, mathematics, and language to express their knowledge individually and collectively. The focus of the study was to investigate the evolution of sketching in two classes and to explore how these tools helped students enrich their understanding of literature and of literacy itself. The data were analyzed by both the teacher-researchearn d the students. The study supports teachingp ractices that provide opportunities for students of all ages to make and share meaning through multiple sign systems.

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This study uses the performative theory of Erving Goffman to understand the conversational roles taken on by students and teachers during college-level writing conferences. According to Goffman, both teacher and student are engaged in the performance of roles, and they cooperate so that discrepant information (revelations that might undermine these roles) are not revealed. Some of that information can come out, however, in what Goffmanc alls “backstage” areas. This study creates two “backstage” areas where both an instructor and the two students involved can listen to tapes of their conferences and provide commentary about tensions and miscommunications in the conferences. The study particularly examines confusions about terminology concerning unity in writing and the negotiation of roles in the conference. The perspective taken in this study illuminates the specific performative demands of a writing conference, suggesting that because these demands are new to some students, their teachers may need to engage in considerable role-shifting to ease the conversational burden and help the students “save face.”

This study examined the effects of three study conditions (review only, study questions, and analytic essay writing) on high school students writing and learning from text (concept application, immediate recall, delayed recall, and recall of manipulated content). An experienced social studies teacher and two levels (general and academic) of her eleventh grade U.S. history course participated in the research. Observational and case study techniques were employed to describe the teacher’s pedagogy, and then a volunteer group of students from each class read, reviewed or wrote about their reading, and were tested on learning from selected history passages. Analyses of the students’ writings indicated their varying approaches to studying and writing about the passages. Both forms of writing enabled both groups to perform better on all learning measures, with the academic students consistently outperforming the general students. Analytic writing was associated with higher scores on concept application, while study questions led to better general recall in the immediate and delayed conditions. When recall was further analyzed for the number of content units contained in the written responses to the two writing tasks, more content units appeared in the analytic writing in both the immediatea nd delayedc onditions. Although the general students’ performanceso n this posttest measure were not as strong as the academic students’ performances, they benefited more from analytic writing than from answering study questions about the history passages. Because both instructional context and academic ability seem to influence students’ performances on writing-to-learn tasks, the study suggests the need for research that will disentangle these influences to identify the effects of pedagogy and student ability on learning from writing.

This article reports on a study of the relationship between classroom context and the revisions of student writers. Specifically, the study examined the nature of the instructional context of the writing in one senior high school classroom and explored potential connections between particular features of the teacher’s approach to writing instruction and the frequency and types of revisions students in that class made to their essays. Drafts of students’ essays were coded for revisions, and results of the coding were examined with reference to specific features of the instructional method and related features of classroom context. Results of the study indicate that students in the present study, like students in some previous studies of revision, focused their revisions on surface and stylistic concerns. The study suggests that specific features of the classroom context, particularly the workshopstyle structure of the course, the interactions among students and the teacher regarding the students’ writing, and the nature of the teacher’s strategies for responding to and evaluating students’ writing, may have reinforced the teacher’s and students’ traditional views of writing quality and revision and may have thus contributed to the students’ focus on lower-level concerns in revision.

Editor’s Note: Selected, annotated bibliographies of research in the teaching of English appear in the May and December issues of RTE. In general, the items selected for inclusion in each bibliography are drawn from the dissertation abstracts in DAI and from articles or books published from July to December preceding the May issue and from January to June preceding the December issue. Annotations of items from DAI are based on the abstracts; annotations of other items are based on the full texts of those items. We ask readers to call our attention to published research we may have overlooked inadvertently and to notify us of newly published books containing research in the areas covered by the bibliography for possible inclusion in the review. Please direct questions or comments to Richard L. Larson, 30 Greenridge Ave., 5-H, White Plains, NY 10605-1237.

This paper examines the written genres of a group of six children in a first grade classroom. Using the dual lenses of sociocognitive constructivism and emergent literacy, it explores relationships among the children’s genres and between these genres and the social context of the classroom in which the children’s written discourse is situated. Analysis of naturalistic data (using an integrated functionalformal analysis which considered substance, intention, form and context as interrelated dimensions of genre) resulted in a classification scheme which encompassed all genres in the children’s writing. Analyses of the classroom discourse revealed the children to be active participants in the social dialogue within their classroom. They constructed their written genres in response to the texts with which they engaged during collaborative reading and writing tasks and in response to the ways in which the teacher structured the writing tasks. They acted upon their world by writing about their personal experiences, creating imaginary worlds through drawing and writing and playing with words and ideas. The genres the children employed came from the morning news, from stories and poems, and from genres that were embedded in their literacy environment or constructed by them in collaboration with their teacher and each other. Both constructiona nd appropriationw ere seen as active processeso n the part of the child rather than as passive imitation or copying from models.

A newly developed instrument, the Literary Response Questionnaire (LRQ), provides scales that measure seven different aspects of readers’ orientation toward literary texts: Insight, Empathy, Imagery Vividness, Leisure Escape, Concern with Author, Story-Driven Reading, and Rejection of Literary Values. The present report presents evidence that each of these scales possesses satisfactory internal consistency, retest reliability, and factorial validity. Also, a series of five studies provided preliminary evidence that each scale may be located in a theoretically plausible network of relations with certain global personality traits (e.g., Absorption), with aspects of cognitive style (e.g., Regression in the Service of the Ego), and with some of the learning skills that are relevant to effective work in the classroom (e.g., Elaborative Processing). In a variety of teaching and research settings, the LRQ may be a useful measure of individual differences in readers’ orientation toward literary texts.

This essay examines English teaching practices in American rural schools from 1900-1940, with a special emphasis on rural schools in Iowa. The essay begins with an overview of rural education, focusing first on the “rural school problem” of the early 20th century and going on to discuss the Country Life Movement, a movement that proposed significant reforms for rural education and rural living. A survey of English teaching practices undertaken in the spirit of the Country Life Movement completes the descriptive text. The essay concludes with an assessment of the Country Life Movement and a discussion of its implications for current educational reform in American schools.

This study examined how 6 low-income children developed alphabetic knowledge in two different instructional settings, skills-based and whole language. Three learners from each setting were matched on their level of literacy experience at the beginning of kindergarten and on their level of achievement at the end of first grade. They were observed twice a week in their regular kindergarten and first grade classroom contexts. All 6 children learned alphabetic concepts and skills necessary for successful reading and writing, and the pattern of acquisition was similar across the two year period in both instructional settings despite differences in the pace of the children’s acquisition of alphabetic knowledge. The learners in the skills-based classroom acquired alphabetic knowledge primarily through reading basals and writing from teacher prompts. The children in the whole language classroom acquired the same knowledge reading self-selected literature and writing texts with self-selected topics. Both instructional settings provided explicit phonics instruction (albeit contextualized differently), and both settings provided time for children to read self-selected books and to write. These common components may be necessary in beginning literacy instructional programs.

Editor’s Note: Selected, annotated bibliographies of research in the teaching of English appear in the May and December issues of RTE. In general, the items selected for inclusion in each bibliography are drawn from the dissertation abstracts in DAI and from articles or books published from July to December preceding the May issue and from January to June preceding the December issue. Annotations of items from DAI are based on the abstracts; annotations of other items are based on the full texts of those items. We ask readers to call our attention to published research we may have overlooked inadvertently or to notify us of newly published books containing research in the areas covered by the bibliography for possible inclusion in the review. Please direct questions or comments to Richard L. Larson, 30 Greenridge Ave., 5-H, White Plains, NY 10605-1237.

Flinders and Eisner begin their article by justifying the use of educational criticism on the basis of two analogies: the researcher-as-critic and teaching-as-art. While not disputing that such comparisons can be useful and illuminating, I argue that they are neither sufficient nor necessary as an underlying basis for their approach. Hinders and Eisner present a clear discussion of the dimensions of educational criticism that demonstrates the potential value of this approach. They also identify and address some of the challenges to such qualitative methods that come from a field that still depends on a quantitative mindset. I recognize that there are many who are not ready to accord educational criticism the value of a science on this basis, but that does not mean that it needs to be associated with in order to be useful. In the end, it is on the basis of the descriptions and practices of educational criticism that such an approach will have to be judged. Flinders and Eisner, along with their colleagues, have gone a long way in moving this process, and its practice, forward. Having said that a discussion of art is not necessary to justify their approach, some further thinking about the links between art - both the traditional and the more controversial views of it - and teaching may be illuminating. Additional analyses help us to recognize that, on the one hand, we can elevate teaching to the status of an - to be looked at and admired by connoisseurs. But, on the other hand, it also suggests that the representation, discussion, and interpretation of education can be experiences - like television, performance art, and movies - in which anyone can participate.

This study sought to determine the value of a tiered model of staff development for five districts using Teacher Consultants (TCs) drawn from a parent district with a long writing project history. In these outreach projects, these TCs actualized the National Writing Project (NWP) principle of regarding teachers as expert consultants to their colleagues. Stake’s Contingency and Congruence Evaluation Model was used to establish 1) the relationships among the preconditions necessary for successful implementation of the staff development program, 2) the processes by which the program was to be implemented, and 3) the outcomes which were intended. Data across five replication sites consisted of evaluations from 366 participants; self-reports of changes in skill levels by 191 participants; self-reports of classroom practices implemented by 216 participant and control teachers; and pretest and posttest scores on essays written by 3,927 students of participant and control teachers. It was determined that most required preconditions were observed; that all intended processes of the programs in the replication sites were successfully accomplished; and that the expected outcomes in replication sites were, in fact, achieved. In terms of outcome data, most of the analyses reflect significant differences in writing achievement between treatment and control subjects, favoring students of trained teachers. A survey of classroom practices indicated that trained teachers at all levels implemented more varied composition activities than did non-trained teachers. The results are viewed in light of the literature on effective staff development and, in particular, on the NWP

This article describes the patterns of literacy development in children froms table home environments who were prenatally exposed to crack or cocaine. The article includes a brief overview of observations from the first year of study followed by a focus on patterns of development observed during Year Two. During the second year, the children continued to develop in what is considered to be an age appropriate manner, with onlys even children receiving special education support. A few children experienced setbacks in their learning, but there seemed to be reasonable causes for these setbacks. During this secondy ear, the importance of classroom context, as established by the teacher, became an important aspect in the literacy developmeont this group of children. The article concludes with one case study highlighting the importance of classroom context in a child’s literacy development.

This study analyzes two literature discussion groups in a sixth-grade classroom. The analyses investigate the purpose for discussion as constructed by the members of each group and the kind of discussions that took place. The students were placed in these groups on the basis of reading ability. Collected over the course of a school year, data include audiotapes and transcripts of group meetings, field notes describing observations of meetings and other classroom interactions, and interviews with students and the teacher. Although the teacher wanted both groups to engage in informal discussion, only the group composed of more able readers constructed a conversation in which students participated eagerly and valued each others’ contributions. In contrast, the group composed of less able readers constructed a more teacher-dominated activity in which students seemed reluctant to participate voluntarily, display their knowledge, or construct meaning collaboratively. This study suggests several possible reasons why the less able readers did not respond to the teacher’s invitation to participate in informal discussions of literature

The goal of this study was to expand our understanding of mentoring situated within electronic exchanges. Focusing on three graduate and five undergraduate mentors’ responses via telecommunications, we explored the strategies mentors used to make their reading and understanding of the texts explicit to their students, the responses mentors provided to demonstrate how students might revise, and mentors’ perceptions toward mentoring. Mentors responded to eight drafts from 24 ninth-grade students over an eight-week period, generating an average of 20 comments per student draft. Data collected included response grids of each mentor’s comments to students, interviews with mentors midway and at the end of the study, and journals kept by the mentors. Results showed that mentor pre-project expectations about responses they might make to students did not correspond to their actual responses, and that as the project progressed, mentor responses formed patterns corresponding to the draft of the students’ writing assignment. Additional differences were found based on mentors’ previous teaching experience, gender, and requests for feedback. Mentors expressed as their greatest difficulty not knowing which comments were perceived by students as most helpful

Editor’s Note: Selected, annotated bibliographies of research in the teaching of English appear in the May and December issues of RTE. In general, the items selected for inclusion in each bibliography are drawn from the dissertation abstracts in DAI and from articles or books published from July to December preceding the May issue and from January to June preceding the December issue. Annotations of items from DAI are based on the abstracts; annotations of other items are based on the full texts of those items. We ask readers to call our attention to published research we may have overlooked inadvertently and to notify us of newly published books containing research in the areas coveredb y the bibliographyf or possible inclusion in the review.P lease direct questions or comments to Richard L. Larson, 30 Greenridge Ave., 5-H, White Plains, NY 10605-1237.

This study provideas framework for analyzing t e multiplea spects of reader perspective in a teacher’s approacth to writing instruction. This framework is based on an examination of one teacher’s written comments on her students’ paper as well as on observations of her classroom. Analysis showed that the teacher’s perspectivaes a reader, as reflected by her written commenotsn students’ papers, differed (a) across students, especially for the two students at either end of the ability rangea; and (b) a cross writing assignmentrs, evealing differences in their difficulty but in ways not predicted by the theory underlying the assignment sequence. Groundeind the social processes of writing and reading in the context of the classroom, the framework gives researchers and teacher as way to explore reader perspective in teacher response to student writing and its influence on writing and learning to write.

Modeling of exemplary samples of prose has been a commonly used method of teaching composition skills. But little research has been done on the effectiveness of using prose modeling in the composition classroom, and even instructors who use prose modeling in their instruction often question its value. This study examines the differences in response between expert and novice writers who were asked to write essays in an unfamiliar prose form after having been given different sets of instructions, some of which included a model of the unfamiliar prose form. The results of the study indicate that novice writers who are given a model of an unfamiliar prose form to imitate respond in a manner which is more introspective and evaluative and far more similar to the responses of expert writers than do novice writers who are not given a model.

Editor’s Note: Selected, annotated bibliographies of research in the teaching of English appear in the May and December issues of RTE. In general the items selected for inclusion in each bibliography are drawn from the dissertation abstracts in DAI and from articles or books published from July to December preceding the May issue and from January to June preceding the December issue. Annotations of items drawn from DAI are based on the abstracts; annotations of other items are based on the full texts of those items. We ask readers to call our attention to published research we may have overlooked inadvertently or to notify us of newly published books containing research in the areas coveredb y the bibliographyf or possible inclusion in the review. Please send questions or comments to Richard L. Larson, 30 Greenridge Ave., 5-H, White Plains, NY 10605-1237.

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Now let me remind you that the conference on which this book is based was organized to consider educational research, but this discourse, like our current discussions of values, is stranded in abstraction. Only in Popkewitz's chapter do we hear anything anything that has to do with schools, with children, with curriculum, with learning, with teaching. What ever happened to show-and-tell? I want to pass around my things, my pens, my frequent flier coupons. I want to empty my purse on the podium and let lipsticks, old change, keys, and stale pieces of Carefree gum and fuzzy aspirins contaminate the academic altar. I want to be obscene. What that means is that I want to show what goes on behind this scene, (p. 334)

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This naturalistic study, coauthored by a composition specialist and a philosopher, explores the learning experiences of college students in an Introduction to Philosophy course and the learning experiences of the research collaborators themselves. The researchers identify conflicting ways of knowing in class discussion, student writing, and within their own interdisciplinary collaboration. They then ask questions about how these ways of knowing interact and with what effects. In order to answer these questions the researchers drew upon student data they collected in two consecutive semesters as well as the close records they kept of their own collaborative work. Four research methods were used: observation, interviews, composing-aloud protocols, and text analysis. Conclusions are drawn from the data regarding the benefits for students and researchers of juxtaposing multiple epistemological perspectives. Also presented are conclusions about the learning contexts that promote epistemic growth. The textual form of this study is “heteroglossic,” that is, certain sections are written by the researchers, certain sections by the teacher-researcher, and others are coauthored by both.

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Fifty-eight, college-preparatory twelfth-grade students and their English teacher participated in this study of whether exploratory talk in small groups can help students assimilate new information on complex topics more effectively than can participation in a class discussion or a lecture. Of the three treatments (lecture, class discussion, student-led small-group discussion), the small-group discussion was significantly more effective in improving the students’ knowledge as they prepared to write. Similarly, differences in the quality of analytic, opinion essays (scored for clear thesis and elaboration of ideas) revealed that small-group discussion was consistently superior for both weaker and stronger writers. Data from composing-aloud protocols revealed that following the talk conditions students were better able to remain on task while composing their opinion essays, and that students made significantly fewer negative comments about their essay production. Attitude measures revealed that students preferred the treatments that allowed them to talk when developing their understanding of complex ideas. Results from all data sources converge to indicate that exploratory talk in student-led small groups can provide a powerful means for developing understanding of complex topics and can facilitate writing about these ideas.

This article examines the kinds of instruction that foster student engagement with literature and the effects of such instruction on achievement. First, two general kinds of student engagement are distinguished: “procedural,” which concerns classroom rules and regulations, and “substantive,” which involves sustained commitment to the content and issues of academic study. The article then describes the manifestations of these two forms of engagement, explains how they relate differently to student outcomes, and offers some empirical propositions using data on literature instruction from 58 eighth-grade English classes. The results provide support for three hypotheses: (a) Disengagement adversely affects achievement; (b) Procedural engagement has an attenuated relationship to achievement because its observable indicators conflate procedural and substantive engagement; and (c) Substantive engagement has a strong, positive effect on achievement. Features of substantively engaging instruction include authentic questions, or questions which have no prespecified answers; uptake, or the incorporation of previous answers into subsequent questions; and high-level teacher evaluation, or teacher certification and incorporation of student responses into subsequent discussion. Each of these is noteworthy because they all involve reciprocal interaction and negotiation between students and teachers, which is said to be the hallmark of substantive engagement.

This paper compares the effects of pencil-and-paper and computer-assisted versions of a process/model approach in a college writing program with the effects of a more traditional approach. Three empirical measures are used in the study: a frequency count of linguistic markers of argumentation and comparison/contrast based on previous work by Odell (1977), a measure of the number of arguments, and a measure of their logical integrity. All significant differences favored students in the experimental sections, who used more markers, made more arguments and made stronger arguments. Students in the computer-assisted (CAI) version of the experimental approach used still more markers than students in the pencil-and-paper version, suggesting that the CAI materials may enhance the efficiency of student learning of some formal aspects of reasoning in writing. These results suggest that it may be possible to attain a postprocess paradigm for teaching writing and thinking that transcends the dialectic that places process and product in opposition to each other.

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This study investigated the relationships between five junior high school teachers’ personal approaches to literature and their teaching of literature. Each teacher was interviewed eight times and observed while teaching literature eight times. Data comprised of field notes, transcriptions of audiotapes, and a variety of written artifacts were used to prepare individual case studies. The case studies revealed that the teachers’ personal approaches to literature included an emphasis on vicarious involvement. The case studies further revealed that the teachers’ use of the knowledge present in their personal approaches to literature is limited by a “school” approach to literature which consists of a focus on comprehension and the learning of literary terms and concepts and which is supported by state-mandated achievement tests. The conclusions suggest that pedagogically useful knowledge exists in these five teachers’ personal approaches to literature but that institutional constraints and the teachers’ lack of a theoretical framework for literary studies prevent it from being utilized.

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