It is argued that although the writing on science and technology produced by women in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries has usually been considered peripheral to scientific and technological advancement, the history of the mediatrix, or woman mediator, reveals that women writers carried out essential tasks. History suggests that women assumed the role of mediatrix much more frequently than they assumed other roles, largely because that role allowed women to contribute to science and technology without seriously violating gender norms. The careers and writing of four women mediators are described, showing that mediation is an unrecognized but crucially important aspect of the intellectual activity of science and that mediative writing often clarifies, rather than debases, scientific knowledge. The history of women mediators also suggests that intermediaries are essential for the functioning of the interlocking and overlapping groups and institutions that constitute science and technology and that it might be beneficial to restructure organizations so that the role of mediator is clearly defined and valued.< <ETX xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">&gt;</ETX>

The overall legal significance of multiple drafts of professional communications is discussed. In particular, some of the legal principles that govern the status of written documents, such as the applicable rules of court are reviewed, and the types of litigation in which previous drafts can figure prominently are examined. The possibility of multiple draft liability in light of the current emphasis on writing as a process, with writers encouraged to turn off the editorial sides of their brains during the early stages of composing, is considered.< <ETX xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">&gt;</ETX>

Strategies for improving stylistic efficiency of technical writing are presented. The strategies, in contrast to the myriad of advice on how to improve sentence style, create sentence flow and give the prose a character that propels readers along. Improvements in stylistic efficiency come from aligning word order with readers' expectations so as to restrict the reader's interpretive latitude. >

The point beyond which promotions, raises, and job opportunities in general are defined to women and minorities solely because of their sex or their race, the so-called glass ceiling, is addressed. A communication-based theory of the organizational glass ceiling is outlined. The theory considers communication style, regardless of race or gender, to be an organizational member's most critical business behavior. The theory suggests a way to understand communication style in the context of the glass ceiling.< <ETX xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">&gt;</ETX>

It is asserted that immediacy communicates approachability and availability, and that interpersonal relationships are crucial to job effectiveness and satisfaction for technical communication professionals. Increased concern about sexual harassment in the workplace, however, creates a paradox; while immediacy behaviors can establish a positive workplace environment, sexual harassment policies can serve to inhibit such behaviors. As a result, technical communication professionals in the arenas of training policies and procedures construct training programs that provide both male and female perspectives and prevent the slanting of materials inappropriately in one direction over another. Immediacy behaviors that are appropriate within the context of sexual harassment policies in the cross-gender workplace are addressed, with emphasis on the above paradox.< <ETX xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">&gt;</ETX>

A course design and the material for implementing a course in which students explore the status of women and minorities in the scientific and technical professions and the possible reasons for that status are presented. The course is offered as a model for the integration of intercultural and gender issues into the technical communication classroom. Since cultural and gender issues are neither scientific nor technological but humanities issues, core readings for the course are humanities texts. By working in teams of culturally and gender-diverse colleagues, students explore the intercultural concerns and gender issues in the field of technical communication. Students conduct personal interviews, study published reports, obtain policy statements and current statistics, analyze data, draw conclusions, and submit a comprehensive technical report to audiences who might act on those findings, such as the National Science foundation.< <ETX xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">&gt;</ETX>

To discover the similarities and differences between primary and secondary computer manuals, and to account for the popularity of the secondary texts, two best-selling books for word processing and spreadsheet programs are compared to documentation supplied by the manufacturer. A heuristic for analyzing software documentation based on cognitive and rhetorical principles is developed and applied to the corporate documentation for (WordPerfect 5.0) in contrast to Stewart's Using WordPerfect 5 from Que, and the corporate documentation from 'Lotus 1-2-3' in contrast to Gilbert and Williams's 'The ABC's of 1-2-3 from Sybex.' It is shown that the trade texts from Que and Sybex contain more conceptual background information than the corporate documentation and differ in their rhetorical stance: the writers provide a richer context by giving more examples for applying the software; the writers provide global and structural frameworks; the writers use persuasive marketing techniques to ease the reader's anxieties and remind them of the software's benefits; and the writers identify themselves.< <ETX xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">&gt;</ETX>

Important goals for interface designers are to determine when it is beneficial to use iconic or command-based menus and how these traditional menu systems can be enhanced by the use of sound. To investigate this topic, 28 subjects were asked to maneuver through one of four different implementations of an interactive software package in order to execute a target command using either an iconic or command-based menu with or without the use of sound. The sounds descended in pitch as the depth of the menu increased, and were used as an auditory cue to code the location of a particular menu item. The results indicate that icons were more easily remembered than commands, but that commands were easier to locate under the highest level branch of the menu. The results also indicate a trend toward faster performance times with the use of command-based menus in comparison to iconic-based menus designed with the same structure. However, there was no difference in performance within iconic or command-based menus when sound was included in the user interface. Implications for user interface design are discussed.< <ETX xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">&gt;</ETX>

It is pointed out that the design document is an effective way of managing documentation development, particularly in large-scale projects. It provides a rough picture or sketch of the information before the writing begins, thereby permitting changes in design before the course of the documentation is set. Once finished, it becomes a road map for writers, managers, and developers. It can later be used to verify that the design was implemented in the final text for publication. It is concluded that, although on first appearance it might seem that a design document simply adds one more thing to do on a project, the added effort is more than compensated for by the amount of time and money saved in not having to modify information at a much later point.< <ETX xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">&gt;</ETX>

It is noted that user interface professionals contribute to a project by making sure that the design of both the input and output of any system takes users' needs into consideration. These professionals perform varied tasks. They analyze the job tasks of users, design and administer questionnaires, conduct user studies, make user interface design recommendations, design prototypes, perform statistical analysis, and interpret the results. In some projects, they are assisted in these tasks by software tools that generate interface code which can be reused by programmers, thus saving significant development time and enhancing the quality of the product. It is recommended that project managers assign user interface professionals to work on large projects throughout their life cycle.< <ETX xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">&gt;</ETX>

It is pointed out that veteran technical writers and editors sometimes suspect that the professors who teach technical writing and editing are too deeply immersed in their academic culture to translate effectively into the classroom the world of work culture in which technical writing and editing are practised. It is argued, however, that the two cultures are remarkably alike, sharing the same goal-to improve communication. Differences arise primarily in the approaches taken to achieve that common goal. Drawing on 25 years of experience as a visiting professor in a university writing program, the author discusses the different approaches that industry and academia take to such topics as grammar, rhetoric, audience, editing, artwork, decision-making, and collaborative writing.< <ETX xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">&gt;</ETX>

The results of a survey of 1001 professionals in Taiwan's high-technology industries are presented. The survey describes how these professionals use English communication skills in their work. The data should help Taiwanese universities and industries design or modify English communication skills courses. The survey also offers a specific example form which one can draw general appraisals of the extent to which English has become an international language in the high-technology industries. The study confirms the seriousness of the need for nonnative English-speaking professionals to improve their English language skills. Even with at least ten years of English training, a majority of the professionals surveyed feel that they do not communicate effectively in English, and they want continued instruction in some aspect of English communication.< <ETX xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">&gt;</ETX>

The documentation effort undertaken by the Danish CIM/GEMS (computer-integrated manufacturing: general methods for specific solutions) project to drive, direct, and support its CIM-technology development and transfer activities is described. The project recognized that in the phases of CIM development-from planning through maintenance-the primary deliverable is not the CIM system itself, but the documentation used to describe, specify, justify, and support its development and use. As a result, the project organized itself so that it would transfer to its industry participants the information needed to build CIM systems, and not CIM technology alone. Because this information best resides in well-written and complete documentation, the CIM/GEMS project adopted a management-by-document approach, treating documentation activities as part of system development and assigning professional personnel to the task. As an archive of CIM-system development, the documents captured the project's in-progress work and the knowledge of developers who performed that work. As a deliverable, the documents were the principal means for carrying CIM knowledge and experience off-site.< <ETX xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">&gt;</ETX>

The author examines 22 experimental usability studies that appeared between 1980 and 1989. The discussion takes two directions: analysis of fundamental aspects of research coherence and unity by assessing the extent to which researchers jointly pursue a logical sequence of questions and the extent to which they integrate findings from prior studies into their own designs; and assessment of how trends in sample selection, size, and composition limit the strength of research conclusions. Ten years' worth of choices about samples show that a cumulative laxity in these choices has greatly constrained what one confidently can say experimental studies have proven about effective hard copy documentation. The author concludes by offering 13 recommended design strategies for future usability research.< <ETX xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">&gt;</ETX>

The development of research consortia as a means of advancing technology is discussed. It is noted that the development of consortia requires cooperation between industry, government, and academia, each of which has different goals. Houston University is interested primarily in enhancing basic research and secondarily in obtaining patents, funds, and support. Industry is interested in the direct use of basic ideas in industrial applications, while the government is interested in the rapid growth of technology and the encouragement of arrangements to stimulate it. Formation of consortia requires sound sciences, clear administration, and plentiful financing. Each entity in the group must obtain benefits or the effort will fail. Organization of a consortium must take into account the legal requirements of patenting, disclosure of information, trade secret handling, and relations between organizations which may wish to use the same information in different ways.< <ETX xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">&gt;</ETX>

A study of communication in graduate management programs sponsored by IEEE/PCS and Fairleigh Dickinson University is described. The findings indicate a clear need for more emphasis on oral and written communication and suggest that one solution to the problem is a course requirement in written and oral communication in conjunction with one or two full-time faculty dedicated to the subject. The findings also indicate that full-time faculty who teach communication courses at the graduate level have extensive business and academic experience, and their compensation is well within national guidelines. The study indicates clearly that exit requirements, when they exist, lack both an oral and written communication component, although a written term project for course work is almost universally employed. Other surveys and publications provide background information;.< <ETX xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">&gt;</ETX>

Professional communicators and managers can soften the tone of bad news messages by avoiding transitional axes, which are words and phrases that sever one section of the message from the next section. These words destroy any potential for goodwill between the sender and receiver of the message. The sender can avoid transitional axes in at least three ways: by using verbally keyed transitions such as repeated words, synonyms, specific naming, abbreviations, or generic nouns; by using cognitively keyed transitions that employ word and thought association to create implied connections; and by using traditional connectors such as conjunctions and conjunctive adverbs. Each of these techniques avoids use of the transitional ax and facilitates the exchange of bad news.< <ETX xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">&gt;</ETX>

It is pointed out that, after Gutenberg's introduction of movable type an the printing press in the fifteenth century, and due to the influence of the Renaissance, Western culture entered a period of visual efflorescence. Then, due mainly to the influence of the Scientific Revolution, there occurred a derogation of visual experience in favour of word and abstract number. It is argued that, in the late twentieth century, technology, supported by developments in scientific theory, has given new efficacy to visual thinking and experience. Increasingly, illustrations of various types are employed to give meaning to otherwise incomprehensible data. Today's technical communicator must learn to deal effectively with the new demands of a visual culture, becoming not only a master of the new technology but also a possessor of a deep understanding of the theories and structures of visual knowledge.< <ETX xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">&gt;</ETX>

A model for the design of information products is presented. The model serves as a resource to diagnose ineffective designs as well as a guide for the construction of effective displays. It accommodates many factors affecting the reader's processing of visual displays, including cognitive and perceptual processing, ergonomic factors, and the influence of cultural differences. Because the disciplines employed in this paper are incomplete and often depend upon speculation, the model should not be viewed as complete or comprehensive. However, the model can be modified as information design matures as a discipline.< <ETX xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">&gt;</ETX>

Publications on the broader history of technical communication that have appeared over the past decade are reviewed. It is suggested that historical studies can easily be pursued in North America owing to the availability of source material. Recent microfilm or microprint publications of both primary sources and reference guides to them are identified. Three examples of engineering reports published in the early 19th century are discussed, and their historical implications are explored. The author holds that there is a role for history in the teaching and research of technical communication.< <ETX xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">&gt;</ETX>

The author details the development of an industrial training curriculum at Albany International (a textile company which makes paper-machine clothing, huge ruglike belts used to convey paper on paper machines), including the development of technical video as an important part of the program. Specifically, the production of a technical video for the warp yarn dresser is examined. The role of the video in the manufacturing segment of the curriculum is explained. Details of the video development and a variety of its educational uses in the company are discussed.< <ETX xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">&gt;</ETX>

Despite forecasts of the increasing use of cross-functional project teams in industry, too little is known about how such teams function and how they might come to function more effectively. One organization, a small manufacturing firm in the Southeast, and members of a selected cross-functional project team consented to have a researcher present during the life cycle of a single project. Reflections based on the resulting case study highlight three overarching areas of concern in cross-functional designs: first, equity as an evolving blueprint for project-team work; secondly, trust as the foundation upon which solid progress depends; and thirdly, authority as the visible framework of the process and products of the team's work.< <ETX xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">&gt;</ETX>

It is argued that, from a statistical analysis of the references cited in the engineering literature, the age of the references cited by the engineering research community can be modeled according to the simple lognormal probability density function (pdf). A more natural estimate of the age of a paper is not the number of years elapsed since its publication but the logarithm of this number. Hence, the temporal distance between two references is better estimated by the ratio of their ages rather than by their difference. This pdf gives a time frame for gauging the period that is necessary to separate research with lasting value from research yielding more ephemeral results. It provides a temporal framework for describing the relevant information that authors extract from the literature. A well-structured research archive (or a collection of books about a specialty in a library) should contain papers or books (the choice of which is, of course, subjective) whose age is distributed proportionately to the lognormal pdf.< <ETX xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">&gt;</ETX>

Technical communicators can overcome their reluctance to use color in technical communications and use it effectively if they understand how color works, respect the limitations of color, and apply it in ways compatible with communications objectives and human perception. Terms dealing with colors are defined, and reasons for using color in displays are outlined. Problems, misperceptions, and solutions associated with the use of color in technical communications are discussed.< <ETX xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">&gt;</ETX>

The relationship of shape and color, which are two of the parts of a composition, and their relation to the comprehension of written language are discussed. A composition is described as a gestalt that has shape and color within a geometric construct, affecting comprehension and meaning. Therefore, what is seen can be modified by changes in shape and color within a geometric construct modifying comprehension and meaning. Geometric constructs, shape concepts, and color percepts and their implementation in a composition are considered.< <ETX xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">&gt;</ETX>

In 1989 a bipartisan group of US congressmen attempted to use high-definition television (HDTV) as a vehicle to redirect government policy toward the consumer electronics industry. The authors explore why that effort ultimately failed. It is noted that important technical issues were rarely reflected accurately in the public policy debate. In spite of efforts by the IEEE, engineers were largely absent from the debate and failed to influence it. Technical arguments were carried on primarily by those who did not understand the technical issues involved or who distorted them to fit an established political philosophy. How technical information about HDTV was used by the participants, and how political factors set the terms by which technical information could or could not be presented are examined. How engineers might have made a more effective technical case for HDTV is considered.< <ETX xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">&gt;</ETX>

Responsibility for the failure of an information transfer through the filter of translation should be shared by the writer of the text, who may have given the translator insoluble conundrums. Ambiguities in the original text are identified as the main pitfalls, and application of the generally accepted guidelines for good, clear English is presented as a solution. Examples of guidelines specifically intended to help technical people write text intelligible to readers who are not native English speakers are described. Several questions to keep in mind when writing and editing technical papers to be translated and their solutions are discussed.< <ETX xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">&gt;</ETX>

The design and implementation of a microcomputer-based decision support system (DSS) to assist an editor's manuscript selection procedure for journal publication are discussed. The DSS organizes and maintains the information necessary for cataloging and tracking the referees' evaluations of manuscripts submitted for potential publication. Referee selection is supported by matching the functional and methodological attributes of the manuscripts with the declared expertise of the referees. Historical records of past review performances are used to enhance the editor's ability to effectively and efficiently assign referees to incoming manuscripts. The DSS was developed to release the editor from operational activities, decrease manuscript turnaround times, and facilitate prompt and accurate responses to author queries regarding the status of their manuscripts.< <ETX xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">&gt;</ETX>

Several surveys that compared the effectiveness of color and black and white as they are used in a variety of communication situations are discussed. The effects of color in printed documents and on-line text and on electronic publishers during the printing process and writers during the writing process are described. Suggestions for the effective use of color in technical communications are presented.< <ETX xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">&gt;</ETX>

Many engineering students are unprepared to address public policy issues because their education is fragmented: they tend to focus narrowly on technical solutions to closed-end problems in engineering and science courses, and they do not see how technical communication relates to either engineering or public policy. A multidisciplinary approach to professional communication which addresses this fragmentation is discussed. In the four-semester engineering practices introductory course sequence (EPICS) program, students learn professional communication skills by working in groups on 'real world' projects for which industry and government professionals serve as clients. These open-ended problems involve numerous nontechnical constraints, including a variety of public policy issues. Communication skills and the important connections among competent technical analysis, effective communication, and effective policy formation are reinforced and extended in the policy analysis course and senior design sequence, where students are required to consider and articulate the public policy implications of complex technological projects.< <ETX xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">&gt;</ETX>

It is noted that communication scholars and teachers agree that the first step in joining a community is to learn the conventions of discourse of the target discipline. But argument in public policy arenas often involves multiple disciplines and must address ethical as well as technical issues. The authors term such discourse forums 'noncongruent sites' and explore the problem of how to determine when the field-specific discourse convections of specialists appropriately give way to ethical argument. It is argued that engineers must be educated to take a more than purely technical perspective on public issues. The curriculum at one institution is examined, and examples of courses and projects which tend to promote a broader perspective are given.< <ETX xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">&gt;</ETX>

It is pointed out that, both in methodology and in findings, the investigations of the Challenger disaster by a Presidential Commission and by a Congressional committee demonstrate that even in highly technical matters meaning is socially constructed. The author examines the evidence and testimony before the investigating bodies and finds that, before the launch, NASA officials construed information about O-ring charring in socially contingent ways and ultimately pressed engineers to work under similar assumptions in declaring the shuttle flightworthy. Although the two investigations examined much the same evidence, differing methodological assumptions led them to different conclusions and recommendations. It is found that both investigations emphasized procedural concerns while largely neglecting personal judgment and responsibility, even though the evidence suggests a key role for personal and social judgment. It is concluded that the field of professional communication needs to become more alert to the role of social factors in technical matters.< <ETX xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">&gt;</ETX>

The data collected in electronic databases by government agencies, universities, and private organizations could be of use to a public increasingly interested in participating in public policy formation. However, because most users lack skill in communicating with computers and because institutions resist the dissemination of databases, this information is not widely accessible to the public in forms it can use. The authors propose establishing a public access 'data hub' to process requests for database access, download a copy of the requested data from the original source database (databases would not reside at the hub), and display the data in the form requested. The 'bridge' between user and data would be an interface to process the request for data and then shape and interpret the data for the user. A single interface would allow users access to information that resides on many different computers without their having to learn to 'talk' to each different system. Helping to design and implement this interface would be the task of the professional communicator.< <ETX xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">&gt;</ETX>

Several strategies that comprise an overall blueprint for a winning proposal strategy are described. They are the will-to-win strategy, the customer development strategy, assessing the competition, the pricing strategy, tactics and themes, the proposal presentation strategy, and the review strategy. It is shown that the methods presented offer a deliberate and thoughtful scheme for planning a proposal development effort so that customer-critical issues are identified and addressed using an overall strategy translated into detailed sub-strategies.< <ETX xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">&gt;</ETX>

The perceptual and cognitive processes that allow a person to see and interpret color are described. Color is a distraction only when these processes and the documents upon which they operate are construed very narrowly. Functions for the use of color in documents that rely on the perceptual and cognitive processes are presented.< <ETX xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">&gt;</ETX>

In The Nurnberg Funnel, J.M. Carroll (1990) reviews and reformulates his research on minimalism, a well-known approach to both print and online software documentation in which explicit instruction is severely reduced and users learn through a predominantly exploratory process. The authors examine the book and conclude that although it is stimulating and valuable, Carroll fails to make a compelling case of minimalism as a broadly applicable alternative to the contemporary multicomponent documentation set.< <ETX xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">&gt;</ETX>

Three books that provide an overview of current practice in organization communication, look into the future of the field, and a penetrating critique of key assumptions and definitions are reviewed. Several of the issues under consideration-especially organizational culture, generalisation conflicts, and the relationship between communication and productivity-are of special interest to the business community. It is concluded that the issues raised demand consideration by everyone in an organization who writes and speaks on the job, from engineers and managers to technical writers.< <ETX xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">&gt;</ETX>

The varied treatments, introductions and conclusions receive in technical writing textbooks are explored from the dual perspective of the students who must incorporate the advice into their work and the professors who must present the material to students. The books attempt to focus on specific techniques for generating clear, concise writing, delineate methods of authorial analysis and offer student and professional examples of technical reports. It is concluded that these textbooks are successful when the structure of introductions and conclusions is tied closely to the context of the actual report.< <ETX xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">&gt;</ETX>

A bibliography and its introduction provide a convenient way to narrow the scope of selecting pedagogical material by discussing recent, easily accessible books in the field of technical communication. The bibliography consists of two parts: one is devoted to more traditional textbooks appropriate for classroom use, whether in academia or in industry and business; the other discusses such other resource materials for collateral use and supplementary reading as scholarly studies, anthologies, and handbooks. The bibliography is reasonably comprehensive for books published from the beginning of 1988 through June 30, 1990. 42 books are annotated, and an additional ten are listed.< <ETX xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">&gt;</ETX>

The field of software documentation is reviewed by examining manual writing before and after 1985. Changes in the field include an increased emphasis on satisfaction of users, improved management strategies and improved design techniques. Three books on software documentation published since 1988 are surveyed, and it is argued that the trends after 1985 reinforce a social constructionist view of documentation.< <ETX xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">&gt;</ETX>

Research in technical communication in 1989 is assessed. The analysis indicates that systematic research in technical communication is still in a limited stage of development. One major problem is the lack of a clear distinction between an illustrative case and a case study in the empirical sense. In the few articles presenting systematic research, the most frequently used methodology is survey/questionnaire. Problems include sample selection and generalizability. In several studies, however, surveys were just one of several tools in a qualitative approach. While some projects were carefully designed, overall, the quality of the methodology is uneven. A comparison of the areas being researched with those designated by technical communicators as needing research revealed that more research is needed in management. Also needed is more systematic research into visual aspects of technical communication.< <ETX xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">&gt;</ETX>

Three books that attempt to define online documentation are studied and the important theoretical and practical issues that are being raised by this communication medium are discussed (E. Barratt, 1988; S. Doheney-Farina, 1988; W.K. Horton, 1990). The focus is on how the intersection of research and practice is helping to construct this new definition, and the works are analyzed critically through the lens of active writing practices. A caution is raised regarding future research that could tend to be unreflective in nature.< <ETX xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">&gt;</ETX>

Four very different books from four very different fields, (neuroscience, linguistics, cognitive psychology and philosophy) are studied. The books all accept the model of the brain as modular and share a common view of the general organization of the human brain. Although only one of the books deals specifically with usable design, the author believes that all of them have potential interest for document and page designers.< <ETX xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">&gt;</ETX>

Social constructionist theories suggest that scientific knowledge is the product of socially created conceptual frameworks. These theories have influenced the study of scientific writing because of their emphasis on persuasion and consensus. These issues are developed by the authors of three recent books: Gould demonstrates the social nature of science; Bazerman shows the social nature of the development of scientific genres; and Myers explores scientific writing as socially mediated narratives.

It is argued that, although corporate writers recognize the power of language as a marketing tool, they often fail to realize the legal implications of their words. Liability issues have become a prime concern in four areas where language plays a major part: investment information, goods and services marketing, safety information, and employee handbooks. It is concluded that understanding the legal problems attendant to these areas will allow corporate writers to better avoid language that risks litigation.< <ETX xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">&gt;</ETX>

When faced with mathematical material, editors with limited technical training often address only superficial concerns such as format and punctuation. A few simple guidelines are presented here which can help one do a more complete job. Superfluous symbols should be deleted; the remaining symbols should be defined properly, redefined where necessary, and used according to the rules of grammar.< <ETX xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">&gt;</ETX>

It is pointed out that many organizations have decentralized their operations to respond more quickly to rapid changes in markets and technologies. Decentralization has legitimized crossfunctional communication and decision making at relatively low levels in these organizations as a means of improving the quantity and timeliness of information. However, decentralization can adversely affect an organization's communications unless a new communication system is designed as part of the altered communication process. It is suggested that working within a new approach to organizational change, called sociotechnical design, technical communicators can help define performance standards for new communication systems, including those integrated with computer-mediated information systems. The objectives of sociotechnical design are consistent with the language-action perspective of the modern office. That perspective asserts that language organizes work relationships and actions by means of conversations (or transactions) in which requests and promises are made among individuals and groups. These conversations are structured by procedures, policy guides, handbooks, training materials, and a host of other communications.< <ETX xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">&gt;</ETX>

It is pointed out that preparing people to work collaboratively allows them to experience some issues of professional ethics, cooperation, responsibility, and decisionmaking. A model for teaching people to work collaboratively is described. A teaching team, comprised of a technical communication professor and a clinical psychologist, explains group dynamics and the three phases of group development to students. The team then asks the members of a group to rehearse roles and discuss various issues that may arise in their groups. It is concluded that people experience and work through issues of collaboration and professional ethics before they begin to work as a group.< <ETX xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">&gt;</ETX>

It is pointed out that an author's violations of ethics can be intentional or unintentional. Sometimes the sins of the pen (or keyboard) creep unawares into a manuscript, only to emerge after publication as awkward ethical problems for the writer. An author can violate accepted standards of practical ethics in several ways. For example, he might run afoul of moral ethics, by misrepresenting facts; professional ethics, by omitting credit to peer's contributions; or legal ethics, by violating copyright laws. Examples show how such indiscretions can damage the author's professional reputation.< <ETX xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">&gt;</ETX>

The relationships between industry characteristics and the cultural characteristics that are differentially associated with successful performance are explored. While the popular press often associates success with a strong culture or specific cultural characteristics, it is more likely that different industries place different demands upon companies, to which different cultural adjustments are appropriate. Examining different characteristics such as capital intensity, investment payback period, and nature of competition, the author hypothesizes that industries vary in the degree to which they concentrate upon either reliability of product or service, or adaptability to the marketplace as a primary objective. It is also hypothesized that firms with either goal will develop very different cultures in order to meet their challenges. An examination of management survey data from utilities and high tech manufacturers supports the hypotheses. Values that assured wide involvement in decisions and protected the company against radical departures from established procedures were reflected in the utilities. In the manufacturers, on the other hand, were reflected values which facilitated their ability to quickly respond to opportunities or changes in the marketplace.< <ETX xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">&gt;</ETX>