Mohan Limaye presents two important concerns in his insightful response to my article [“Categorizing Professional Discourse: Engineering, Administrative, and Technical/Professional Writing,” Journal of Business and Technical Communication 6:1 (January 1992), pp. 5–37]. I wish to comment on these points and also to submit a correction to the text of the article.

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Research by linguists and educators confirms the observation that aspects of the African-American experience are reflected in the grammatical, phonological, lexical, and stylistic features of African-American English and in the patterns of language use, including narrative, found in African-American speech communities. This study goes beyond prior research to investigate and characterize what Hymes refers to as the preferred patterns for the “organization of experience” among African-American adolescents. The results of the study revealed that, although subjects from several ethnic backgrounds stated a preference for using vernacular-based organizational patterns in informal oral exposition, African-American adolescents, in contrast to a group of Hispanic-American, Asian-American, and European-American adolescents, reported a strong preference for using vernacular-based patterns in academic writing tasks as they got older. These findings suggest that the organization of expository discourse is affected by cultural preference and years of schooling and that preference for organizational patterns can be viewed as an obstacle to or as a resource in successful literacy-related experiences.

under attack, and social constructionism-the view that good writers must master the accepted practices of a discourse community-was widely adopted as an alternative. The purpose of this article is to defend expressivism against this attack, particularly against two charges. First, responding to the charge that expressivism, following the romantics, is tied to the ideal of the isolated writer, Steve Fishman argues on historical grounds that it was the social reform dimension of German romanticism that inspired expressivism. Second, Lucille McCarthy responds to the charge that expressivism disempowers students because it does not help them learn disciplinary and professional languages. She presents Fishman's class as one which is committed both to the mastery of philosophic method and to the development of student voices, committed, that is, to achieving social constructionist goals within an expressivist environment. Part I presents a theoretical perspective on expressivism; Part II shows the practical implementation of that theory in the classroom.

This book examines the process of reading (when one's purpose is to create a text of one's own) and writing (which includes a response to the work of others). This is a central process in most college work and at the heart of critical literacy. The study observed students in the transition from high school to college, and in the process of trying to enter the community of academic discourse. The study draws on the methods of textual analysis, teacher evaluation, and interviews to examine students' writing and revising.

Reading-to-Write:Exploring a Cognitive and Social Process, Linda Flower, Victoria Stein, John Ackerman, Margaret J. Kantz, Kathleen McCormick, and Wayne C. Peck Martin Nystrand Thinking and Writing in College, Barbara Walvoord and Lucille McCarthy with Virginia Anderson, John Breihan, Susan Robison, and Kimbrough Sherman Anne J. Herrington The Writing Scholar: Studies in Academic Discourse, Walter Nash Kristine Hansen

In classes ranging from Advanced Expository and Women and at the undergraduate level to Gender, Language, and Writing Pedagogy and Classical and Contemporary Rhetoric at the graduate level, I have invited students to imagine the possibilities for new forms of discourse, new kinds of academic essays. I do because I believe that writing classes (and the whole field of composition studies) must employ richer visions of texts and composing processes. If are to invent a truly pluralistic society, must envision a socially and politically situated view of language and the creation of texts-one that takes into account gender, race, class, sexual preference, and a host of issues that are implied by these and other cultural differences. Our language and our written texts represent our visions of our culture, and need new processes and forms if are to express ways of thinking that have been outside the dominant culture. Finally, I believe that teaching students to write involves teaching them ways to critique not only their material and their potential readers' needs, but also the rhetorical conventions that they are expected to employ within the academy. Work in composition has been expanded enormously by theories of cognitive processes, social construction, and by the uses of computers and other forms of technology, yet, as Adrienne Rich writes, we might hypothetically possess ourselves of every recognized technological resource on the North American continent, but as long as our language is inadequate, our vision remains formless, our thinking and feeling are still running in the old cycles, our process may be 'revolutionary,' but not transformative (Rich 247-48). David Kaufer and Cheryl Geisler argue that freshmen composition and writing across the curriculum have remained silent about newness as a rhetorical standard, as a hallmark of literacy in a post-industrial, professional age. They do not believe that this silence can be justified on either intellectual or pragmatic grounds . (309).

Preface - Charles R Cooper and Sidney Greenbaum Introduction - Walter Nash The Stuff These People Write The Literary Argument and Its Discursive Conventions - Susan Peck MacDonald Modality in Literary-Critical Discourse - Paul Simpson Precise and Vague Quantities in Writing on Economics - Joanna Channell Metadiscourse in Popular and Professional Science Discourse - Avon Crismore and Rodney Farnsworth Qualifications in Science - Christopher S Butler Modal Meanings in Scientific Texts When Is a Report Not a Report? Observations from Academic and Non-Academic Settings - Ronald A Carter Writing as an Institutional Practice - Willy van Peer The Writing Student - Mike Hannay and J Lachlan Mackenzie From the Architect of Sentences to the Builder of Texts

George A. Kennedy, trans. Aristotle: On Rhetoric (subtitled A Theory of Civic Discourse). Oxford University Press, 1991. 335 + xiii pages. The Importance of George A. Kennedy's Aristotle: On Rhetoric Kennedy's Aristotle: On Rhetoric as a Pedagogical Tool Kennedy's Rhetoric as a Contribution to Rhetorical Theory Kennedy's Aristotle: on Rhetoric as a Work of Translation∗ James J. Murphy, ed. A Short History of Writing Instruction: From Ancient Greece to Twentieth‐Century America. Davis, CA: Hermagoras Press, 1990. 241 + v pages. Teaching the History of Writing Instruction Thomas Miller. The Selected Writings of John Witherspoon. Southern Illinois University Press, 1990. 318 + viii pages. Patricia Harkin and John Schilb, eds. Contending with Words: Composition and Rhetoric in the Postmodern Age. New York: Modern Language Association, 1991. iv + 242 pages. Sandra Stotsky, ed. Connecting Civic Education and Language Education: The Contemporary Challenge. New York: Teachers College Press of Columbia University, 1991. Janis Forman, ed. New Visions of Collaborative Writing. Portsmouth, NH: Boynton/Cook Publishers, 1992. 200 pages. $23.50.

complex of social formations. In the field of composition and rhetoric, such systems have been described as communities. The term is useful in the theory and analysis of writing because it embraces the rhetorical concern with social interchange (discourse) and with situation or context (community). But the term can lead the analyst astray by prompting an uncritical acceptance of as a natural element or transcendental category. Because community, like discourse itself, is socially constructed-by the analyst as well as by the people who claim membership-the act of identifying communities is never innocent, never free of ideological influences. As both Lester Faigley and Joseph Harris have noted, the word community is almost always used positively, and herein lies its danger to rhetorical analysis. If the community is always good, who but the perverse could question or rebel against practices that sustain the community? However, to accept this irresistible goodness as somehow prior to discourse (above question) would amount to abandoning a key premise of rhetorical criticism-the idea of the rhetorical situation (Bitzer), which demands that the analyst acknowledge the possibility of transformation among the elements and aims of discourse, including location. In addition to changing language and changing minds, the enterprise of rhetoric suggests that speakers and writers have the power to transform the site of discourse, the community itself. In this essay I argue that as a defense against an uncritical adoption of the community concept rhetorical theory needs to keep alive competing concepts of discourse communities, so that alternatives exist in the description and analysis of discourse practices. Recent definitions of discourse communities have established a rather too-narrow foundation upon a communitarian ethic. At the present time, when liberalism's stock is down, communitarianism appears to be a strong alternative for understanding the relation of people to government and culture (Lasch). In liberalism, social organization depends upon two strong formations-the individual, who may enjoy a wide range of rights and freedoms at the possible cost of

In his 1925 article Literary Criticism of Oratory, Herbert Wichelns, a scholar of rhetoric at Cornell, observed that, with respect to literary study, oratory had become either an outcast or a poor (181). Oratory's falling out of favor indicated to Wichelns that perceptions of discourse had been radically transformed. Intimating what the change might consist of, he wrote, [i]nvolved in it is some shift in the conception of oratory or of literature, or of both; nor can these conceptions have changed except in response to the of which oratory, as well as literature, is part (181). Scholars writing after Wichelns have frequently reported on the ill fate of oratory-and, more broadly, of rhetoric as the practice and study of some kinds of written as well as oral discourse-in American colleges. How had colleges by 1925 come to demote rhetoric to a position beneath literary critical study and literary works of fiction, drama, and poetry? As Wichelns suggested, rhetoric and literature shared some life, and our elaboration of their common history and context can help us account for rhetoric's condition. Some scholars have argued that the study and status of rhetoric in the college curriculum diminished as a strong interest in literature emerged (e.g., Stewart 119-21; Connors, Ede, and Lunsford 5-7; Halloran 176). Exploring the role of the belletristic tradition in rhetoric and of representative individuals such as C. S. Baldwin and the men who held the position of Boylston Professor of Rhetoric at Harvard, the work of these scholars offers insight into the interrelations among rhetoric and literature during the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Historians neither of English nor of speech as academic disciplines, however, have traced the relation between rhetoric and literature as it was construed by scholars who were active during this time. The concomitant rise of literary study and fall of rhetoric suggest that historical perceptions of the relation between literary and rhetorical discourse figure in the story of rhetoric's demise. Part of what we might call the life of rhetoric and of literature is the relation that members of the profession perceived between them. As with contemporary discussions on the issue in such texts as Jane Tompkins' Reader in History and Steven Mailloux's Rhetorical Power, we might guess that turn-of-the-century scholars posited rela-

Rhetorical criticism, as it has developed over the past five decades or so, has taken on many agendas-for example, neo-Aristotelian criticism, movement studies, dramatistic criticism, genre criticism-all of which have been attempts to apply, reconstruct, or improve on a long tradition. What is striking about this body of critical literature is that none of it takes very seriously one of the paramount concerns of that tradition-namely, style. Indeed, a survey of the periodical literature shows that there persists a fundamental neglect of in both the theory and the practice of rhetorical criticism.1 Various theoretical and critical practices represented in this body of literature suggest that is a frustratingly elusive and amorphous creature, stubbornly resisting description. Most of the material does not venture much beyond theory and is, for the critic, consequently inadequate, for it falls short of a level of analysis that would reveal how rhetoric works. As a result, rhetorical criticism does not provide a useful critical approach to reading a discursive text. In one respect, this shows that some incisive remarks about the importance of in criticism and the neglect thereof which Donald Bryant made over thirty years ago have been either disregarded or forgotten. Moreover, I argue that both the interpretation of discourse (criticism) and the production of discourse (composition) can profit from careful attention to rhetorical style. For if, as Bryant2 has suggested, style is the final elaboration of meaning, then surely is the initial encounter through which auditors apprehend meaning. Does it not seem reasonable that ought play a major role in the critical act of the analysis of discourse? However, granting that has been neglected, I now must explain what I mean by style. To begin, Bryant has urged us to regard it not as the mere department of elocutio but that in dispositio and even inventio participate. Bryant argues: It is difficult at best to consider the functioning language of discourse without becoming involved at once with the ordering of the discourse. Furthermore, if we go beyond the static idea of disposition as arrangement, to the potentially dynamic idea of disposition as disposing, as Wagner thought necessary, we may conclude that for the critic the two names signify the two lenses for a stereopticon view of a

Metaphor and Reason in Judicial Opinions by Haig Bosmajian. Carbondale, IL: Southern Illinois University Press, 1992, 205 pp. The Context of Human Discourse: A Configurational Criticism of Rhetoric by Eugene E. White. Columbia, SC, University of South Carolina Press, 1992, vii‐ix, 307pp. Rhetoric, Hermeneutics and Translation in the Middle Ages: Academic Traditions and Vernacular Texts by Rita Copeland.Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1991; 295pp. Terms of Response: Language and Audience in Seventeenth‐ and Eighteenth‐Century Theory by Robert L. Montgomery. University Park, PA: The Pennsylvania State UP, 1992; 216. The Discipline of Taste and Feeling by Charles Wegener. Chicago: U of Chicago P, 1992. Robert M. La Follette Sr., The Voice of Conscience by Carl R. Burgchardt. New York, Greenwood Press, 1992, viii + 243 pp.

First, I'd like to offer analysis of Halasek's and Bernard-Donals' utterances, but it may also be taken as rhetorical or tendentious characterization of them. If we begin with the two points of reference provided by our session's title, and Rhetorical Criticism, I think we can say that Halasek identifies herself as rhetorical critic or theorist who belongs to community of like-minded rhetorical critics and theorists, one that together poststructuralist thought, social constructivism, and writing and pedagogy. For them Bakhtin's vilification of is problem and his alternative rhetorical tradition is an opportunity. Halasek can summarize the Bakhtin attacks and distance herself from it as a definition of that is not ours and she can appropriate as much more congenial to herself and her fellow rhetoricians the rhetorical tradition of oppositional genres and discourse moves with which Bakhtin identifies the novel. She imagines Bakhtin's hostility to as consequence of his hostility to the official languages of Russia during his lifetime and imagines herself and her colleagues as also opposed to a of oppression but apparently not confronted with similar authoritarian political situation. Instead of identifying herself exclusively with parodic rhetoric opposed to an official monologic she posits dialogic rhetoric which can contemplate the tensions between polemic and rhetorics in the professional and pedagogical tasks of textual and cultural analysis. Bakhtin offers her better way of doing what rhetorical critics were already doing. Halasek welcomes Bakhtin's tension-filled genres and joyful relativity in prose that is relatively free from tension and clear about where it stands. She can separate Bakhtin's vilification of from his celebration of it, choose one side over the other, and even explain away Bakhtin's adherence to the side she rejects as function of his particular historical situation. She is at home with the listeners she posits and brings them Bakhtin they can use without having to change their minds about or politics. Bemard-Donals, on the other hand, writes tension-filled and ambivalent prose in the name of escaping from relativism and uncertainty. He is not at one with what he takes to be the community of contemporary rhetorical but sees it as plagued by the collapse of distinction between science and that he somehow wants to reassert He persists in commitment to theory or science or dialectic or history that he believes rhetorical critics like Fish and Rorty have subsumed under rhetoric, and he turns to Bakhtin not to assimilate him to the consensus in current rhetorical but to find way out of the impasse of current rhetorical theory. The Bakhtin he needs for his purposes is not the celebrant of parody and joyful relativity but the theorist of the socially constituted subject who can provide rhetorical criticism with scientific model for understanding how subjects are formed in language. In effect, he wants to substitute Bakhtin's sociolinguistics of the subject for the psychology of the subject Plato calls for in the Phaedrus as the scientific foundation for that could then know, as he put it in his

As in the fields of composition and technical writing, the emphasis on hierarchical organization of texts in business writing has led to a devaluation of narrative, perhaps because the kind of knowledge that narrative creates has been insufficiently understood. By elucidating the special properties of narrative as a mode of discourse and as a cognitive instrument, this article argues for the potential power of narrative in many common business writing situations.

This study provides descriptive analysis of a 20-hour training program to prepare peer tutors to work in a writing lab. The subjects included 20 first-year MBA students who demonstrated proficiency in writing and interpersonal skills. Nine students chose to participate. The analysis includes conversations, actions, and reflections of peer tutors during the training period. The process involved instructors with peer-tutor training experience, a selection procedure that incorporated a student-centered philosophy, several general meetings to orient and deal with concerns about tutoring, and a number of simulated sessions that moved the tutors from sentence- to discourse-level concerns.

This essay presents a critical case study of how shifts in the style and genre of written communication both reflect and influence historical shifts in political consciousness and action. The field of study is the discourse of environmental advocacy. With increased public support for actions that would forestall environmental degradation, environmental politics has diversified. Formerly a resistance movement directed toward influencing large-scale governmental or industrial actions through the rhetoric of polemical dispute, environmentalism has evolved into several distinct approaches, including a globalist movement and a grass roots movement that share an interest in policy and procedure, the traditional topics of instrumental discourse. A new genre built upon this proactive attitude—the green how-to book—currently dominates the popular literature on environmental problem solving. Capitalizing on the document designs of technical communication, these manuals recommend courses of action ranging from fixing the Environmental Protection Agency to fixing the toilet; they are directed to audiences ranging from the President of the United States to the ordinary householder. They have in common an attempt to break the paralysis of fear associated with realizations about the scale of environmental damage. But—because the instrumental genre tends to obscure relations of agent, action, and effect—covert political agendas may pass unnoticed into the personalist politics of the new literature.

Although narration has been recognized as a complex mode of discourse, its role in professional communication has not been widely studied. This article examines narration in one form of professional communication—direct solicitations— and links narration to an important research issue: the social construction of knowledge, or the social justification of belief, through language. The direct solicitations are described, and the role of narration in justifying belief socially, for direct solicitations, is then discussed by examining narration and analysis as two means for organizing and expressing experience. The interweaving of these two means in direct solicitations is illustrated, but finally the importance of the narrational over the analytic in giving shape and significance to experience is asserted. Thus, the central role narratives play in justifying belief socially, for direct solicitations is described. Three sample narratives from three direct _ solicitations illustrate this discussion.

(Inter)views: Cross‐Disciplinary Perspectives on Rhetoric and Literacy edited by Gary A. Olson and Irene Gale, with an introduction by David Bleich.Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 1991. 269 pp. Rhetorical Questions: Studies of Public Discourse by Edwin Black. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992; 209 pp. $24.95 cloth. An Introduction to Composition Studies,> edited by Erika Lindemann and Gary Tate. New York: Oxford University Press, 1991. Pp. 189. Methods and Methodology in Composition Research ed. Gesa Kirsch and Patricia A. Sullivan. Carbondale, IL: Southern Illinois U P, 1992; ix+354. John Donne and the Rhetorics of Renaissance Discourse by James S. Baumlin.Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 1991; 333 pages. Richard McKeon: A Study by George Kimball Plochmann.Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 1990; vi + 260pp. The Selected Writings of John Witherspoon ed. By Thomas Miller. Carbondale: Southern Illinois UP, 1990. 318.

In the summer of 1763, James Boswell witnessed Quaker woman speaking to her Sunday gathering. Shortly thereafter, Boswell remarked on the event to Samuel Johnson. Sir, Dr. Johnson replied, a woman's preaching is like dog's walking on its hinder legs. It is not done well, but you are surprised to find it done at all.' Johnson's comment expresses two significant features of early modem rhetorical practice: women's public address was rare, and it was widely considered an affront to conventions of cultural discourse. Neither comes as surprise for those familiar with eighteenth-century public life; but they do serve as prompts to the question: How and to what effect was women's speech portrayed in this period? In searching for answers, we are led back toward the modem origins of rhetoric's historical association with misogyny. I examine in this essay popular representations of women as speakers in the eighteenth-century. Surveying prominent journals, reviews, newspapers, and magazines, we can better understand how rhetorical conventions help to condition audiences and habituate responses. One such rhetorical convention-misogynist satire-is here examined as force in shaping attitudes toward women as speakers. My interest is not so much in the formal properties of satire-though we must reckon with rhetorical form-but more in convention and content as modes of insinuation. satiric portrayal of women by men in eighteenth-century England may be grouped for synoptic purposes according to two general characterizations: (1) Womens's speech is perverse, and (2) it is meaningless. Subsidiary associations interlard this body of satiric literature, including images of violence, victimage, and absurdity. Together, these satiric representations help to establish patterns of reception, habits of perceiving women's speech as naturally aberrant. Insofar as such images of women's speech were promoted in popular and pejorative terms, we may accord to the eighteenth-century male satirists significant role in shaping modern attitudes about women and speech. My analysis thus enters into the arc of rhetorical action where production and praxis meet-that is, at the point where misogynist convention and audience inclination touch. I hope to thereby establish the destructive force of such satire, and to show that it functioned to withhold from women incentives to public address. This study, then, takes as its point of departure Felicity Nussbaum's observation on eighteenth-century discursive practices. The context of antifeminist satires, she writes, creates myth of assumptions that resonate in the satirists's minds. Women, as the violator of the authority of her contractural bonds to the patriarchical order, dares to disdain that authority in the Restoration

Academic Literacies suggests that the narrow focus on academic ways of reading, writing and thinking is limited and limiting for both students and teachers at the college level. Chiseri-Strater uses ethnographic field methods to uncover the multiple literacies that two college students bring to different disciplines and shows how factors such as gender, human development, and private talents are ignored in the college curriculum. She works against Hirsch's restricted view of literacy and offers many suggestions for expanding our notion of what it means to be literate in an academic setting. This book joins the continuing debate over cultural literacy, but unlike Hirsch's and Bloom's works, it offers a new point of view - the students'. Those who plan curricula and set goals for higher education too often ignore these individuals who are the patrons of the system. In addition, composition scholars who are involved in the emerging field of academic discourse communities will find Chiseri-Strater's position of interest. Finally, since the book offers a critique of the dominant mastery mode of teaching in colleges, it should appeal to those woman's studies scholars who are developing a feminist pedagogy that brings women students into the conversation about womens's ways of knowing, perceiving and learning.

Literacy in the United States: Readers and Reading Since 1880, Carl F. Kaestle, with Helen Damon-Moore, Lawrence C. Stedman, Katherine Tinsley, and William Vance Trollinger, Jr. Richard Arthur Courage Academic Literacies: The Public and Private Discourse of University Students, Elizabeth Chiseri-Strater Ronald A. Sudol Writing Space: The Computer, Hypertext, and the History of Writing, Jay David Bolter David Kaufer, Chris Neuwirth, and Myron Tuman At the Point of Need: Teaching Basic and ESL Writers, Marie Wilson Nelson Vivian Zamel ESL in America: Myths and Possibilities, Sarah Benesch Nancy Duke S. Lay Grammar and the Teaching of Writing: Limits and Possibilities, Rei R. Noguchi Constance Weaver Rhetorical Grammar: Grammatical Choices, Rhetorical Effects, Martha Kolln Thomas J. Farrell Doing Grammar, Max Morenberg Paul Jude Beauvais Textbooks in Focus: Handbooks A Writer’s Handbook: Style and Grammar, James D. Lester New Concise Handbook, Hans P. Guth The Scott, Foresman Handbook for Writers, Maxine Hairston and John J. Ruszkiewicz Dennis Shramek Selected Essays of Edward P. J. Corbett, Robert J. Connors James L. Kinneavy Interviewing Practices for Technical Writers, Earl E. McDowell Alice I. Philbin

Preface Acknowledgments Introduction PART I The Structure of Sentences Chapter 1 An Introduction to Words and Phrases Chapter Preview Form Classes Nouns The Noun Phrase Verbs The Verb Phrase NP + VP = S Adjectives and Adverbs Prepositional Phrases Grammatical Choices Key Terms Chapter 2 Sentence Patterns Chapter Preview Rhetorical Effects The Be Patterns The Linking Verb Pattern The Intransitive Pattern The Basic Transitive Verb Pattern Transitive Patterns with Two Complements Sentence Pattern Summary The Optional Adverbial Questions and Commands Punctuation and the Sentence Patterns Basic Patterns in Prose The Short Paragraph Key Terms Rhetorical Reminders Punctuation Reminder Chapter 3 Our Versatile Verbs Chapter Preview The Expanded Verb Using the Expanded Verb Special Uses of the Present Tense Other Auxiliaries The Passive Voice Using the Passive Voice The Obscure Agent Well-Chose Verbs: Showing, Not Telling Key Terms Rhetorical Reminders Chapter 4 Coordination and Subordination Chapter Preview Coordination Within the Sentence Parallel Structure Coordination of the Series Climax Coordination with Correlative Conjunctions Subject-Verb Agreement Compound Sentences Conjunctive Adverbs and Transitional Phrases Compound Sentences with Semicolons Compound Sentences with Colons Punctuation Pitfalls The Compound Sentence: Punctuation Review Subordination: The Dependent Clauses Revising Compound Structures Key Terms Rhetorical Reminders Punctuation Reminders Part II Controlling the Message Chapter 5 Cohesion Chapter Preview Reader Expectation Repetition The Known-New Contract The Role of Pronouns Personal Pronouns Demonstrative Pronouns The Role of the Passive Voice Other Sentence Inversions Parallelism Repetition versus Redundancy Key Terms Rhetorical Reminders Chapter 6 Sentence Rhythm Chapter Preview Intonation: The Peaks and Valleys End Focus Controlling Rhythm The It-Cleft The What-Cleft The There Transformation Rhythm and the Comma Power Words Correlative Conjunctions Adverbials of Emphasis The Common Only Key Terms Rhetorical Reminders Punctuation Reminder Chapter 7 The Writer's Voice Chapter Preview Tone Diction Verbs and Formality Nominalized Verbs and Abstract Subjects Contractions Metaphor Metadiscourse The Overuse of Metadiscourse Point of View Key Terms Rhetorical Reminders Punctuation Reminders Part III Making Choices: Form and Function Chapter 8 Choosing Adverbials Chapter Preview The Movable Adverbials Adverbs Prepositional Phrases Proliferating Prepositional Phrases Noun Phrases Verb Phrases Dependent Clauses Punctuation of Adverbial Clauses Movability of Adverbial Clauses The Because-Clause Myth Elliptical Adverbial Clauses Key Terms Rhetorical Reminders Punctuation Reminders Chapter 9 Choosing Adjectivals Chapter Preview The Noun Phrase Preheadword Modifiers Determiners Adjectives and Nouns Modifier Noun Proliferation The Movable Adjective Phrase Postheadword Modifiers Prepositional Phrases Adjective Phrases Participial Phrases The Prenoun Participle The Movable Participle The Dangling Participle Relative Clauses The Relatives The Broad-Reference Clause Punctuation of Phrases and Clauses A Punctuation Rule Revisited Key Terms Rhetorical Reminders Punctuation Reminders Chapter 10 Choosing Nominals Chapter Preview Appositives The Colon with Appositives Avoiding Punctuation Errors The Sentence Appositive Nominal Verb Phrases Gerunds The Dangling Gerund The Subject of the Gerund Infinitives Nominal Clauses Nominals as Delayed Subjects Key Terms Rhetorical Reminders Punctuation Reminder Chapter 11 Other Stylistic Choices Chapter Preview Absolute Phrases The Coordinate Series Repetition Word-Order Variation Ellipsis Antithesis The Deliberate Fragment Key Terms Rhetorical Reminders Punctuation Reminders PART IV Your Way With Words Chapter 12 Words and Word Classes Lexical Rules Parts of Speech The Form Classes Nouns Plural-Only Forms Collective Nouns Proper Nouns Verbs Adjectives Adverbs Derivational Affixes The Structure Classes Determiners Auxiliaries Qualifiers Prepositions Particles Conjunctions Pronouns Personal Pronouns The Missing Pronoun Case Errors The Unwanted Apostrophe The Ambiguous Antecedent Reflexive Pronouns Intensive Pronouns Reciprocal Pronouns Demonstrative Pronouns Indefinite Pronouns The Everyone/Their Issue Key Terms Rhetorical Reminders Punctuation Reminders PART V Punctuation Chapter 13 Punctuation: Its Purposes, Its Hierarchy, and Its Rhetorical Effects The Purposes of Punctuation Marks Syntax Prosody Semantics The Hierarchy of Punctuation The Rhetorical Effects of Punctuation Key Terms Glossary of Punctuation Glossary of Terms Bibliography Answers to the Exercises Index

A“cognitive discourse analysis” was employed to analyze instructions for using a word processor written by eighth-grade students. The approach analyzes text structure in order to specify underlying semantic and conceptual knowledge structures. Our analyses revealed that the written instructions produced by the student writers were deficient in providing a reader with the information necessary for performing the task in two distinct ways. First, the group of students as a whole presented insufficient content information in their texts, particularly with respect to the subprocedures required to use the word processor. Second, the organization of students' texts did not parallel the hierarchical structure of the procedures described. These results suggest the importance of looking at writing from the point of view of the knowledge structures being expressed.

I suspect that many people who buy sentimental greeting card verse have the same preconceived ideas about such verse that I had before I began a serious study of it a few years ago. To my mind, greeting card verse was a trite and trivial form of poetry, filled with flowery language, poetic diction, and figures of speech, appealing to emotions in excess of the occasion-artificial, affected, and insincere. To my surprise, however, I discovered that greeting card verse, although often written in meter and rhyme, is not poetry, nor is it intended to be, but a rhetorical composition, a message transmitted from one person to another. Although its rhymes and meters are frequently trite (this may account for its wholesale condemnation), the sentiments it expresses, although commonplace, are seldom trivial. It uses few figures of speech, little or no poetic diction, and almost no flowery language. Nor are its emotions in excess of the occasion. The sentiments and emotions it expresses are no different than those that you and I might express at a wedding, a graduation, an anniversary, or a birthday, or at Christmas, New Year's, or Easter-good luck, congratulations, I love you, I'm thinking of you, have a joyous holiday, and so forth. Finally, greeting card verse is neither artificial, affected, nor insincere, but straightforward, genuine, and sincere. In fact, it exemplifies beautifully an important kind of ceremonial discourse, and I can think of no better way of introducing writers to the ancient art of epideictic discourse than through a careful analysis and understanding of the rhetorical strategies used by writers of greeting card verse. Paradoxically, greeting card verse is both universal and particular. The message of greeting card verse must be general enough to fit representative rhetorical situations (Quinn 22), yet particular enough to fit immediate occasions. Like proverbs, maxims, quotations, and anecdotes, when they are decontextualized and put into collections, greeting card verse is decontextualized when it is put on racks of cards in card shops, drug stores, and supermarkets. Under appropnate circumstances, however, the person who buys greeting card verse recontextualizes it, appropriates it to his or her own intention, and sends it to someone else as a personal message. As a result, there is a dialogic relationship set up between the writer's intention and the sender's intention, between the writer's words and the sender's words. But as Mikhail Bakhtin has pointed out, do not all of the

Richard Leo Enos, ed. Oral and Written Communication: Historical Approaches. "Written Communication Annual, An International Survey of Research and Theory,” vol. 4. Newbury Park: Sage Publications, 1990. 264 pages. Susan C. Jarratt. Rereading the Sophists: Classical Rhetoric Refigured. Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 1991. 181 pp., $22.50. Brandt, Deborah. Literacy as Involvement: The Acts of Writers, Readers, and Texts. Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 1990. 151 pages. Jeanette Harris. Expressive Discourse. Dallas: Southern Methodist University Press, 1990. 206 pages.

Voice of Deliverance: The Language of Martin Luther King Jr. and its Sources by Keith D. Miller. New York: The Free Press, 1992. 247 pp. +. Rhetorical Thought in John Henry Newman by Walter Jost. Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1989. The Contemporary Reception of Classical Rhetoric: Appropriations of Ancient Discourse by Kathleen E. Welch. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1990; pp. viii + 186. Constructing Rhetorical Education, edited by Marie Secor and Davida Charney. Carbondale: Southern Illinois UP, 1992; pp. 432 + Preface, Index. Truth and Convention in the Middle Ages: Rhetoric, Representation and Reality by Ruth Morse. Cambridge University Press, 1991. Pp.ii + 295.

(1992). Legitimating leadership: The rhetoric of succession as a genre of presidential discourse. Rhetoric Society Quarterly: Vol. 22, No. 2, pp. 25-38.

To discover the similarities and differences between primary and secondary computer manuals, and to account for the popularity of the secondary texts, two best-selling books for word processing and spreadsheet programs are compared to documentation supplied by the manufacturer. A heuristic for analyzing software documentation based on cognitive and rhetorical principles is developed and applied to the corporate documentation for (WordPerfect 5.0) in contrast to Stewart's Using WordPerfect 5 from Que, and the corporate documentation from 'Lotus 1-2-3' in contrast to Gilbert and Williams's 'The ABC's of 1-2-3 from Sybex.' It is shown that the trade texts from Que and Sybex contain more conceptual background information than the corporate documentation and differ in their rhetorical stance: the writers provide a richer context by giving more examples for applying the software; the writers provide global and structural frameworks; the writers use persuasive marketing techniques to ease the reader's anxieties and remind them of the software's benefits; and the writers identify themselves.< <ETX xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">></ETX>

Rhetorical categories can and should be developed by scholars of professional writing to identify how values held within professions constrain the ways discourse is interpreted in organizational settings. Empirical research (conducted by the author and others), discourse theory, and pedagogical practice in professional writing strongly suggest that at least three categories of professional writing exist: engineering, administrative, and technical/professional writing. The author demonstrates this claim and distinguishes the characteristics of these three categories. Engineering writing is shown to respond to professional values of scientific objectivity and professional judgment as well as to corporate interests. Administrative writing reflects the locus of decision-making authority and promotes institutional identity. Technical/professional writing aims to accommodate audience needs through complying with professional readability standards. Future research should focus on defining the characteristics of these varieties more precisely. Articulated definitions of these three varieties of professional writing can help scholars and practitioners better understand how discourse is framed and interpreted in organizational settings.

To help students enter a professional discourse community, teachers must assess how accurately they both understand the community's discourse practices. Our research investigated how job recruiters seeking to fill positions in mechanical engineering or marketing were influenced by the quality of writing in student résumés. The résumés varied in elaboration, sentence style, mechanics, and amount of relevant work experience. The recruiters rated the résumés to indicate their willingness to interview the students. We found that recruiters in the two fields—engineering and marketing—valued quite different writing features. When we subsequently asked students in business writing and technical writing classes to rate the same résumés, we found that they underestimated the importance of various writing features. Generally, however, students' ratings resembled those of the recruiters in their respective disciplines. This study documents how students can improve their résumés and provides insight into the variations of discourse practices in professional disciplines.

Developing alliances with industry may be one of the primary factors in creating a technical communication program that blends sound rhetorical theory and pedagogy with the discourse knowledge of technical communication practitioners. Creating an Advisory Board is one way to forge this alliance. This article describes how such a board was created, the influence it had upon program development, and the insights both industry and academia gained from this alliance. Although industry and academia are not the same, both had overlapping goals: to develop a symbiotic relationship that would provide students and faculty with the technological expertise practicing technical communicators could offer, but, at the same time, to provide a construct true to the missions of a liberal education.

This naturalistic study, coauthored by a composition specialist and a philosopher, explores the learning experiences of college students in an Introduction to Philosophy course and the learning experiences of the research collaborators themselves. The researchers identify conflicting ways of knowing in class discussion, student writing, and within their own interdisciplinary collaboration. They then ask questions about how these ways of knowing interact and with what effects. In order to answer these questions the researchers drew upon student data they collected in two consecutive semesters as well as the close records they kept of their own collaborative work. Four research methods were used: observation, interviews, composing-aloud protocols, and text analysis. Conclusions are drawn from the data regarding the benefits for students and researchers of juxtaposing multiple epistemological perspectives. Also presented are conclusions about the learning contexts that promote epistemic growth. The textual form of this study is “heteroglossic,” that is, certain sections are written by the researchers, certain sections by the teacher-researcher, and others are coauthored by both.

When composing, writers give shape to the meaning they construct, and they signal a possible configuration for meaning through the organizational patterns they supply for their readers. This study examined writers’ options in organizing comparisons–texts that are often considered to have a canonical pattern. Thirty college students wrote their comparisons through discourse synthesis, integrating content cued by two informative texts, each text dealing with one of the two topics to be compared. Analyses focused on the organizational patterns the writers generated and on the content they included. Of the two major ways of organizing comparisons–organization by aspect and organization by object–organizing by aspect was the format used by most writers in this study. However, there was much variability within this format in how writers combined material for the comparison. Writers could focus on specific aspects, could separate aspects into those that were similarities and those that were differences, or could generate macro-aspects to subsume several related aspects. In selecting source material the writers preferentially included content that was symmetrical, in that it related information that was available for both objects being compared. And almost half of their additions also contributed to symmetry by balancing their treatments of the two objects. Chunking of content in a systematic way, especially by generating macro-aspects for topical focus, was a strong predictor of holistic quality ratings, stronger than measures for the nature of the content that was included. These higher-rated papers providing readers with macro-aspects tended to be written by students with higher verbal ability and more extensive topic knowledge. The study points out the variability within comparison discourse and demonstrates the complexity of the choices writers must make in structuring comparison texts

This essay is about resistance, mine and my students', and about the angered and impassioned writing that arises when texts challenge the ideologies of readers. It's been two years now since I taught the particular section of freshman English that gives rise to my story and my writing. course was the second semester of Northern Illinois University's two semester freshman sequence, a course that emphasizes documented writing, the sort that baptizes students into academic discourse. My course was thematically organized and designed to sensitize students to some of the larger problems in our culture; in fact, we were looking at institutions of all sorts-education, religion, politics, and so on. I should say that this sort of ideological consciousness-raising is very much part of our faculty's concern; ours is a largely blue-collar student body where white suburban students meet inner-urban ethnic diversity, sometimes for the first time. And so I felt that having a thematic section on The Status of Women was a good and strong part of my syllabus. class had read three essays in this unit, and after minimal discussion and minimal direction, they adjourned to the computer lab to write their readings of one of the essays. I asked them to react in writing for several pedagogical reasons, the first of which is purely pragmatic-I wanted the class to begin to compose at the computer terminal rather than to transfer handwritten text to disk. Second, I wanted them to interact with the text, to cite it, to struggle with it, to read in another way than they may have been accustomed to reading. Third, I wanted their writing to produce reading that would subvert their assumptions about gender roles, that would allow them to sort out what is biological from what is gendered.

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This study was designed to determine (a) whether the writing of persuasive discourse can be improved by instruction and (b) the effect of reading on writing and of writing on reading within the mode of persuasion. Students in two sixth-grade classes in each of two schools (n= 110) were stratified by sex and ability and randomly assigned to one of four treatment groups: 1. instruction in a model for persuasion plus writing practice; 2. instruction in a model for persuasion plus reading practice; 3. reading novels and writing book reports plus a single lesson in the persuasion model; 4. reading novels and writing book reports (control group). Instruction was given for ten 45-minute lessons over five weeks. Pretests and posttests each consisted of writing a recall protocol of a persuasive text and writing two persuasive compositions. On the posttest, both the writing and the reading groups (groups 1 and 2) scored significantly higher than the control group on writing quality, on the organization of compositions, on the number of conclusions and text markers used, and on the degree of elaboration of reasons. There were no differences between the control group and other groups on reading recall scores.

This article examines the kinds of instruction that foster student engagement with literature and the effects of such instruction on achievement. First, two general kinds of student engagement are distinguished: “procedural,” which concerns classroom rules and regulations, and “substantive,” which involves sustained commitment to the content and issues of academic study. The article then describes the manifestations of these two forms of engagement, explains how they relate differently to student outcomes, and offers some empirical propositions using data on literature instruction from 58 eighth-grade English classes. The results provide support for three hypotheses: (a) Disengagement adversely affects achievement; (b) Procedural engagement has an attenuated relationship to achievement because its observable indicators conflate procedural and substantive engagement; and (c) Substantive engagement has a strong, positive effect on achievement. Features of substantively engaging instruction include authentic questions, or questions which have no prespecified answers; uptake, or the incorporation of previous answers into subsequent questions; and high-level teacher evaluation, or teacher certification and incorporation of student responses into subsequent discussion. Each of these is noteworthy because they all involve reciprocal interaction and negotiation between students and teachers, which is said to be the hallmark of substantive engagement.

This article discusses the work of two American ecologists of the first half of the twentieth century, F. E. Clements and H. A. Gleason, who differed in terms of their understanding of community succession—that is, how ecological communities change over time. Clements's and Gleason's debate about the nature of ecological communities demonstrates, first, that in considering questions of succession, ecologists are constructing and testing plausible narratives. Second, it suggests that the structures of scientific narratives resemble structures of other cultural narratives in depending, at least to some extent, on cultural assumptions and values. The presence of these competing stories about ecological data thus calls attention to the importance of narrative as an interpretive and rhetorical strategy in scientific discourse.

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The Social Uses of Writing: Politics and Pedagogy, Thomas Fox Art Young The Violence of Literacy, J. Elspeth Stuckey Michael Holzman The Scribal Society: An Essay on Literacy and Schooling in the Information Age, Alan C. Purves Joyce Irene Middleton On Literacy and Its Teaching: Issues in English Education, Gail E. Hawisher and Anna 0. Soter Dan Madigan Computers and Writing: Theory, Research, Practice, Deborah H. Holdstein and Cynthia L. Selfe Computers, Cognition, and Writing Instruction, Marjorie Montague Writing Lands: Composing with Old and New Writing Tools, Jane Zeni Dawn Rodrigues The Presence of Thought: Introspective Accounts of Reading and Writing, Marilyn S. Sternglass Marilyn M. Cooper Developing Discourse Practices in Adolescence and Adulthood, Richard Beach and Susan Hynds Richard L. Larson

Introduction: A Model of Discourse Development Reading and Writing as Social Activities The Answers Are Not in the Back of the Book: Developing Discourse Practices in First-Year English THE SOCIAL STANCE The Artful Conversation: Characterizing the Development of Advanced Literacy Making Sense of Reading The Development of Poetic Understanding During Adolescence Writing and Reasoning about Literature THE TEXTUAL STANCE Writers, Judges and Text Models The Development of Persuasive Argumentative Writing Adolescents' Uses of Intertextual Links to Understand Literature Verbocentrism, Dualism, and Oversimplification: The Need for New Vistas for Reading Comprehension Research and Practice THE INSTITUTIONAL STANCE Developing Reflective Thinking and Writing Teaching English for Reflective Thinking Reading, Writing, and the Prose of the School THE FIELD STANCE Telling Secrets: Student Readers and Disciplinary Authorities Assessing Literacy Learning with Adults: An Ideological Approach Developmental Challenges, Developmental Tensions: A Heuristic for Curricular Thinking Author Index Subject Index

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(1991). Abstracting the bodies of/in academic discourse. Rhetoric Review: Vol. 10, No. 1, pp. 52-69.