Written Communication Apr 1998

The Uses and Complexity of Argument Structures in Expert and Student Persuasive Writing

JOANNA G. CRAMMOND McGill University

Abstract

This study investigated differences among student writers at three grade levels (6, 8, and 10) and between expert writers and students in terms of the uses and complexity of arguments presented in their persuasive texts. To analyze argument, a model was developed that could account for structural variations occurring across a range of writing situations. The characteristics of this model were defined using categories derived from a model of semantic representation in discourse. The structural analysis revealed that (a) argument was the predominant organizational structure for all writers, (b) more than 80% of students produced arguments involving some form of opposition, (c) embedded arguments identified in expert texts functioned primarily as countered rebuttals and in student texts as subclaims or reservations, and (d) expert texts contained relatively higher frequencies of warrants, countered rebuttals, and modals, and student uses of these substructures increased with grade.

Journal
Written Communication
Published
1998-04-01
DOI
10.1177/0741088398015002004
CompPile
Search in CompPile ↗
Open Access
Closed
Topics
discourse analysis argument
Export
BibTeX RIS

Citation Context

Cited by in this index (11)

  1. Arias-Hermoso et al. (2024)
    A comparison between input modalities and languages in source-based multilingua…
    Assessing Writing
  2. Abdollahzadeh et al. (2017)
    Argumentative Writing Behavior of Graduate EFL Learners
    Argumentation
  3. Felton et al. (2015)
    Arguing to Agree: Mitigating My-Side Bias Through Consensus-Seeking Dialogue
    Written Communication
  4. Cumming et al. (2005)
    Differences in written discourse in independent and integrated prototype tasks …
    Assessing Writing
  5. Faber (2003)
    Creating Rhetorical Stability in Corporate University Discourse: Discourse Tech…
    Written Communication
Show all 11 →
  1. Le (2003)
    Information Sourcesas a Persuasive Strategy in Editorials: Le Monde and the New…
    Written Communication
  2. Bracewell et al. (2003)
    Tasks, Ensembles, and Activity: Linkages between Text Production and Situation …
    Written Communication
  3. Lunsford (2002)
    Contextualizing Toulmin's Model in the Writing Classroom: A Case Study
    Written Communication
  4. STAPLETON (2001)
    Assessing Critical Thinking in the Writing of Japanese University Students: Ins…
    Written Communication
  5. HAYES et al. (1999)
    Issues in Measuring Reliability: Correlation Versus Percentage of Agreement
    Written Communication
  6. BRACEWELL (1999)
    Objects of Study in Situated Literacy: The Role of Representations in Moving fr…
    Written Communication

References (75) · 12 in this index

  1. Applebee, A.
    Learning to write in our nation's schools: Instruction and achievement in 1988 at grades …
  2. Applebee, A.
    The writing report card: Writing achievements in American schools
  3. Backus, J. W.
    Proceedings of the International Conference on Information Processing
  4. Beaugrande, R. de
    Text, discourse, and process: Toward a multidisciplinary science of texts
  5. Bereiter, C.
    Advances in instructional psychology
Show all 75 →
  1. Berthoff, A. E.
    Forming Thinking Writing
  2. Bracewell, R. J.
    Assessing Writing
  3. Bracewell, R. J.
    Speaking about writing: Reflections on research methodology
  4. Britton, J. K.
    Understanding expository text
  5. 10.2307/1128437
     ↗
  6. Coirier, P. (1993)
    European Journal of Psychology of Education
  7. Connor (1990)
    Linguistic/Rhetorical Measures for International Persuasive Student Writing
    Research in the Teaching of English
  8. Conner, U. (1985)
    Text
  9. Cooper, C.
    New directions in composition research
  10. Crammond, J. G. (1997). An analysis of argument structure in expert and student persuas…
  11. Crowhurst (1980)
    Syntactic Complexity and Teachers’ Quality Ratings of Narrations and Arguments
    Research in the Teaching of English
  12. Crowhurst (1987)
    Cohesion in Argument and Narration at Three Grade Levels
    Research in the Teaching of English
  13. Crowhurst (1991)
    Interrelationships Between Reading and Writing Persuasive Discourse
    Research in the Teaching of English
  14. Crowhurst et al. (1979)
    Audience and Mode of Discourse Effects on Syntactic Complexity in Writing at Tw…
    Research in the Teaching of English
  15. D'Angelo, F.
    A conceptual theory of rhetoric
  16. DURST et al. (1990)
    Appealing Texts: The Persuasive Writing of High School Students
    Written Communication
  17. Ehninger, D.
    Decision by debate
  18. Enos, R. L.
    A rhetoric of doing: Essays on written discourse in honor of James L. Kinneavy
  19. Ericsson, K. A.
    Protocol analysis: Verbal reports as data
  20. 10.2307/358112
     ↗
  21. Ferris (1994)
    Rhetorical Strategies in Student Persuasive Writing: Differences between Native…
    Research in the Teaching of English
  22. FLOWER et al. (1984)
    Images, Plans, and Prose: The Representation of Meaning in Writing
    Written Communication
  23. 10.1016/0010-0285(75)90016-X
     ↗
  24. Frederiksen, C. H.
    Written Communication Annual: An International Survey of Research and Theory, Vol. I: Stu…
  25. Frederiksen, C. H.
    Discourse ability and brain damage: Theoretical and empirical perspectives
  26. Frederiksen, C. H.
    Writing in real time
  27. Fulkerson, R.
    Argument revisited: Argument redefined
  28. 10.1080/01638539409544891
     ↗
  29. Hairston, M. C.
    Successful writing: A rhetoric for advanced composition
  30. Halliday, M.A.K.
    Cohesion in English
  31. Hays, J. N.
    Constructing rhetorical education
  32. Hays, J. N. (1988)
    Research in the Teaching of English
  33. Kintsch, W.
    Cognitive processes in comprehension
  34. 10.1037/0033-295X.85.5.363
     ↗
  35. 10.1080/00220973.1991.10806557
     ↗
  36. 10.1080/00220671.1992.9944434
     ↗
  37. Knudson, R. E. (1993)
    Child Study Journal
  38. Kopperschmidt, J.
    Handbook of Discourse Analysis
  39. Lauer, J. M.
    Composition in context: Essays in honor of D. C. Stewart
  40. Lautamatti, L.
    Writing across languages: Analysis of L2 text
  41. Matsuhashi, A.
    The acquisition of written language: Revision and response
  42. McCann (1989)
    Student Argumentative Writing Knowledge and Ability at Three Grade Levels
    Research in the Teaching of English
  43. McCulley (1985)
    Writing Quality, Coherence, and Cohesion
    Research in the Teaching of English
  44. 10.1016/0749-596X(86)90036-7
     ↗
  45. 10.1080/01638538709544676
     ↗
  46. Meyer, B.
    The organization of prose and its effect on memory
  47. National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP)
    Writing achievement, 1969-1979: Results from the third assessment
  48. 10.1145/366193.366201
     ↗
  49. Newell, A.
    Human problem solving
  50. 10.1080/03637757909376009
     ↗
  51. 10.2307/1130025
     ↗
  52. Perelman, C.
    The realm of rhetoric
  53. Perelman, C.
    The new rhetoric
  54. Ramage, J. D.
    Writing arguments
  55. Rieke, R. D.
    Argumentation and the decision-making process
  56. Rottenburg, A. T.
    Elements of argument
  57. Rubin et al. (1979)
    Development in Syntactic and Strategic Aspects of Audience Adaptation Skills in…
    Research in the Teaching of English
  58. Scardamalia, M.
    What writers know
  59. 10.1207/s1532690xci0201_1
     ↗
  60. Sowa, J. F.
    Conceptual structures: Information processes in mind and machine
  61. Stein, N. L.
    Models of understanding text
  62. Stein, N.
    Informal reasoning and instruction
  63. Stein et al. (1993)
    A theory of argumentative understanding: Relationships among position preferenc…
    Argumentation
  64. Thomas, S. N.
    Practical reasoning in natural language
  65. Toulmin, S. E.
    The uses of argument
     ↗
  66. Toulmin. S. E.
    An introduction to reasoning
  67. van Dijk, T. A.
    Strategies of discourse comprehension
  68. Voss, J. F.
    The psychology of learning and motivation: Advances in research theory
  69. Witte, S. P. (1983)
    Visible Language
  70. Woods, W. A.
    Representation and understanding
CrossRef global citation count: 92 View in citation network → Build reading path →

Related Articles

  1. Res Rhetorica Apr 2026
    Logos in ancient Greek discourse on rhetoric: An overview ↗
    Arkadiusz Sokolnicki
    classical rhetoric rhetorical criticism discourse analysis argument
  2. Argumentation Mar 2026
    Experimental Insights into the Influence of Logic and Pragmatics on Conditional Argument Evaluation ↗
    Ermioni Seremeta; Monique Flecken; Menno Reijven; Jean Wagemans
    discourse analysis argument assessment
  3. Poroi Feb 2026
    Using Stasis Theory as a Heuristic for Examining Epistemological Dilemmas in a Post-Truth Landscape ↗
    Bruce Bowles
    classical rhetoric modern rhetorical theory rhetorical criticism discourse analysis argument
  4. Argumentation Feb 2026
    When Emmanuel Macron Goes Social: Using Social Media Influencers as a Rhetorical Strategy ↗
    Keren Sadoun-Kerber
    rhetorical criticism discourse analysis argument collaborative writing social media affect and writing
  5. Argumentation Jan 2026
    Non-verbal Artifacts and Propositionality: Adjusting Speech Act Theory To Accommodate Multimodal Argumentation ↗
    Maciej Grzenkowicz
    discourse analysis argument multimodality