Advanced composition is now taught in colleges throughout the country to students in a variety of majors. But, unlike freshman English where one finds similar curricula and texts, this course has not had a traditional structure. In some schools, it may even indicate technical writing or advanced grammar study. In a 1979 survey, Michael Hogan discovered that at most colleges the course extended fundamentals learned in freshman English, with work on style and organization for argument, exposition, and other essay forms. Because few specialized texts were then available, teachers relied on books intended for freshmen, such as Hall's Writing Well and The Norton Reader, and thus repeated familiar advice on the modes of exposition, paragraphing and usage, with little attention given to research on composition.1

In its classical formulation, invention is the canon that provides a rhetorician with more or less systematic procedures for finding argu- ments appropriate to the rhetorical occasion that faces her. In most of the composition textbooks written by influential nineteenth-century teachers of writing, however, invention is either greatly transformed from its classical guise or is slighted altogether. By the end of the nineteenth century most popular composition textbooks written in the vein now described as current-traditional treat invention as a means of systematically delimiting an area of thought in order that the writer may handle its exposition in discourse with maximum clarity. 1 In what follows I trace the evolution-or better, devolution-of the inventional procedure recommended by influential composition texts written during the last half of the nineteenth century, and follow its course into our own century. The term evolution is of course metaphorical; however the continuity and development of the inventional tradition I am tracing is remarkably homogeneous. The first-generation authors in the tradition-Alexander Jamieson, Samuel Newman, H. N. Day, and Alex- ander Bain are among the best known-cite and use the work of British rhetoricians George Campbell or Hugh Blair, while members of the second generation-John Franklin Genung, Adams Sherman Hill, Bar- rett Wendell, Fred Newton Scott, and Joseph V. Denney-generally acknowledge at least Bain, Genung, and Day. And after 1900 until about 1940, Wendell and Scott and Denney are the authoritative names in the tradition; they are as routinely cited in early twentieth-century textbooks as were Blair and Campbell in nineteenth-century works. Early nineteenth-century American school rhetoric is an amalgam of classical and eighteenth-century discourse theory. No American rhetoric text had yet succeeded in creating a satisfactory blend of the epistemological rhetoric formulated by George Campbell in his influen- tial Philosophy of Rhetoric (1776) and the Ciceronian rhetoric imparted by such popular works as John Ward's System of Oratory (1759).2 Alexander Jamieson's popular Grammar of Rhetoric and Polite Litera- ture (1818) nicely represents the confusion of traditions which obtained in the early part of the century.3 Jamieson opens his treatise with a discussion of language which is an imitation of Hugh Blair's treatment of 146

(1985). The cultural tradition of nineteenth‐century “traditional” grammar teaching. Rhetoric Society Quarterly: Vol. 15, No. 1-2, pp. 3-12.

Clarkson University is developing software tools to help students write with more skill and thought. The new programs include a powerful word processor, a spelling checker, an authoring system, numerous pre-writing programs, and computerized prose analyzers. The components of the Clarkson writing system function as an integrated whole, setting a standard for writing packages. Early use of these programs indicates that the computer is making itself indispensable to the writing teacher.

Retrievability is a major advantage of the Pocketbook. Instead of a traditional table of contents, it contains a topical key to the text to help the reader find specific information. Major divisions, such as “Grammar,” “Punctuation,” and “Mechanics,” make finding information simple.

It is argued that a course in letter writing can serve to sharpen communication skills that have become dulled over years of carelessness and thoughtlessness. It teaches the student to understand and respect the reader's needs in every writing situation and to use the necessary tact and diplomacy in all responses. Furthermore, when the 37 daily writing assignments in such a course have rigorous penalties imposed automatically for errors in spelling, grammar, and syntax, students learn quickly that correct writing is essential.

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Four parallels between technical communication and user-friendly systems are discussed. They are: (1) its overall structures should be apparent to the user; (2) it should be congenial without being chatty or too personal; (3) its nomenclature and syntax must be consistent throughout all functions; and (4) its logic must not trap users in loops but should lead them straight to their goals.

Abstract In their writings about one of the most important cornerstones in the edifice of psychoanalysis, Freud's interpretation of his Irma Dream, Freud and Erikson act as apologists for the modern patriarchy. Using the rhetorical persona of the progressive, scientific hero, Freud and Erikson cast themselves as protagonists in the drama of modernization. Their rhetorical structures, syntax, and diction reveal their sexism. The strategy of their discourses invites their audience to believe that the audience is witnessing scientific discoveries in the making; the rhetoric of Freud and Erikson suggests that their discourse is not patriarchal rationalization, but rational analysis, the drama of the scientific method applied for progress. Their interpretation of Freud's Irma Dream disassociates Freud from women, assigning separate behaviors for rational, progressive males and irrational, traditional females. But the truth of the Irma Dream is that it associates Freud with females and reveals the irresponsibility of both his pharmacological and psychological prescriptions.

This paper describes current problems with data-entry forms used in offices and discusses a method, called the syntax method, through which some of the problems can be eliminated. In particular, the technique used in this method for identifying duplicate names and improving the names of the elements is described. Results from a test of the method on three Dept. of Defense Contractor Cost Performance Forms are provided.

Common errors of word usage and grammar are described and corrected with examples. The errors came from similar sounding words, non-interchangeable words, and inappropriate, redundant, and otherwise misused words.

In Fall Semester, 1981, randomly selected students taking freshman composition at Colorado State University wrote essays using word-processing equipment and a computer programmed with DICTION, SUGGEST, STYLE, and SPELL, programs developed by Bell Laboratories. Studies at Bell Laboratories have shown that technical writers using these programs not only edit more thoroughly but also learn to edit on their own. This study tests for similar improvement in college writing and editing skills and also measures effects of computer assistance on attitudes toward writing. Our tests suggest that textual analysis with computers intrigues college writers and speeds learning of editing skills by offering immediate, reliable, and consistent attention to surface features of their prose. Most freshmen writers have had little practice editing their own written work so little that wordy expressions, faulty diction, and spelling errors increasingly mar even their most careful composition. Bedeviled by these and other problems of young writers, we began exploring ways of using word-processing technology and computers to help students analyze and edit their own writing before handing it in for marking. While we were preparing a computerized diction list, reports reached us about Bell Laboratories' extraordinary editing software Writer's Workbench (Macdonald, 1980; Cherry, 1981, 1982; Cherry & Vesterman, 1981; Frase, et al., 1981; Macdonald, et al., 1982). Discovering our parallel interests, Colorado State University and Bell Laboratories began discussions leading to a research exchange permitting CSU to test and adapt Writer's Workbench for teaching composition. During these negotiations, CSU leased the three Workbench programs then available. In Fall Semester, 1981, randomly selected students taking freshman composition wrote essays using word-processing equipment and a computer programmed with DICTION, SUGGEST, and STYLE. Also included in the test was SPELL, Bell Laboratories' spelling checker distributed with the computer we used for the experiment. Studies at Bell Laboratories (Gingrich, et al., 1981) have shown that technical writers using Writer's Workbench not only edit more thoroughly but also learn to edit on their own. What might the effect be on college writers? Few would doubt the value of students correcting their own spellResearch in the Teaching of English, Vol. 17, No. 3, October 1983

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Making sense is the hallmark of purposeful writing, yet too few people take the time necessary to revise what they have written. No one should be satisfied with a first draft. Writing is a process and, as such, requires taking whatever time is necessary to produce worthwhile writing. Included are seven tips to consider in the revision process: (1) keep subjects, verbs, objects, and complements close together; (2) maintain an average sentence length of less than 20 words; (3) prefer the active voice; (4) eliminate the indefinite “this” (5) simplify verb tenses; (6) ensure that all paragraphs have clear topic sentences; and (7) avoid “this is” and “there are” constructions.

When reviewing someone else's document, the reviewer is supposed to help the writer achieve the major objective of the paper, i.e., to communicate effectively with the reader. This paper provides guidelines that enable a reviewer to make a positive contribution by raising questions that lead the author. Most of the paper is concerned with measuring readability and style with minor emphasis on grammar.

Tables and figures arc an integral part of the medium of communication of science and technology. An analysis of tables and figures, relying heavily on Euclidean terms (point, line and plane) explains something of their power–their ability to display with clarity large amounts of data, complex data relationships, and intricate three-dimensional configurations. Analysis also clarifies the mutual dependence of tables and figures and their accompanying texts. Additionally, analysis makes clear the semantic gap between tables and graphs, on the one hand, and illustrations, on the other. All are equally vital strategies in scientific and technical discourse. However, tables and graphs are paralinguistic extensions of scientific and technical dialects; illustrations, on the other hand, are a nonlinguistic supplement to these dialects. Finally, analysis provides clues for the teaching of proper graphic choice, good graphic ‘grammar,’ and the appropriate contextualization of graphs.

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Instructors of technical writing can teach Japanese specialists more effectively by being aware of some basic linguistic differences. One of the difficulties with traditional instruction is that it is prepared from the native speaker's point of view. Instruction should be prepared to meet the foreign students' needs. Japanese students experience difficulty in three areas: First, they have trouble with technical terms, often relying too literally on a dictionary to offer a synonym. The consequence is their selecting imprecise terms which in turn produces an awkward expression. Second, Japanese students have trouble with English grammar — in particular with articles, prepositions, tenses, auxiliary verbs, and the subjunctive mood. Finally, they are challenged by rhetoric, that is, choosing and arranging words effectively. Examples of each problem are offered with suggestions on how to make the students more aware of the principles involved.

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The practicing technical editor quickly realizes that regardless of author or subject, the same grammatical errors occur repeatedly in manuscripts. This can probably be blamed on a fundamental weakness in the training of technical writers, rather than on any lack of individual or collective ability on the writer's part. With this in mind, ten errors commonly found in technical manuscripts are collected and presented. It is hoped that the list will be helpful to teachers of technical writing and to technical writers who wish to improve their craft.

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A readable style is created by proper handling of ideas, words, phrases, clauses, logic, syntax, and personality. Every word should be written for somebody. These rules tell how to create readable writing: (1) Read some great writing every day; (2) use genuinely familiar words; (3) break sentences into clearly defined units; (4) use signals in sentences (because, so, but); (5) make the subjects and verbs absolutely clear; (6) balance sentences with parallel structures; (7) use nouns sparingly, especially as modifiers; (8) make sentences answer Who does what?; (9) surprise the reader with variety; and (10) do not hesitate to break a rule or create a new one.

An important prelude to job-seeking is preparing the résumé. The author identifies the elements of a useful résumé and suggests how to package those elements to emphasize your assets. Other recommendations include (1)being truthful, (2) using factual and concise language, (3) making no mechanical errors (typos, spelling, or punctuation), (4) not using carbon paper, and (5) having someone else read your résumé before drafting the final copy.

Having students read selected portions of Benjamin Franklin's Autobiography provides unique and effective material for supplementing instruction in style and control of tone. Franklin's writing exemplifies the major style characteristics taught in technical writing: active voice, conciseness, common words, concrete language, sentences structured by clauses rather than phrases. The work clearly shows that good “technical” style is not an isolated type of writing, but a powerful means of controlling tone and meaning. Students can be shown that by skillfully using syntax and diction and by carefully selecting content, Franklin shrewdly and effectively achieved his goal in writing the Autobiography — a precisely drawn image of himself for posterity.

Teachers who are trained in a fiveweek intensive writing project can improve students' composition skills better than teachers who are not trained to teach writing. That is the finding of an evaluation of the Gateway Writing Project, an inservice program involving eight suburban school districts in St. Louis County, Missouri, and funded by ESEA IV-G The program focuses on training secondary English, language arts, and elementary teachers, identified by their districts, in a five-week summer institute to improve students' composition skills. These trained teachers return to their school districts to teach other teachers the following school year. An evaluation of the project's impact on junior high and middle school students measured students' growth in writing and changes in teacher attitudes. The evaluation revealed the program had a significant impact on changing teachers' attitudes toward writing and on the writing performance of junior high and middle school students. By the completion of the five-week institute, participants demonstrated increased knowledge about research in the teaching of writing, about various approaches to the teaching of writing, and about the evaluation of writing. Each participant read selections by Moffett, Macrorie, Elbow, Britton, Cooper, O'Hare, Diederich, and Shaughnessy from a bibliography prepared for the institute. All participants kept a reading journal of their reactions to these authors and their ideas. Each participant also wrote several papers, then selected one paper for publication. All participants belonged to an editing group which met at least twice a week to read rough drafts of writing assignments. Two methods of evaluation of writing were taught: an holistic scoring approach and an error analysis technique. Approximately one-third of the summer institute was used for the participants to take a turn in presenting an effective teaching of writing approach which was supported either by research or review of the literature and developed through an appropriate writing assignment with printed materials suitable for the junior high/middle school students.

To understand a scientific or technical article written in English by Japanese specialists, readers should understand in what areas of English grammar the Japanese tend to make mistakes. Most common are mistakes in the use of articles, subjunctive mood, prepositions, and auxiliary verbs. Also a problem is the use of unsuitable words, often due to the use of bilingual dictionaries. A further complication arises from the absence of the perfect tenses in Japanese.

Titis monograph explores the conflicts in attitudes toward language that occur and-in which English teachers may be asked to uphold forms and conventions oftraditional grammar standards while they have linguistic training and knowledge that support a sore flexible language usage. Chapters deal with conflicts in attitudes toward lan'guage, language attitudes and the change process, changing language kttitudes within the profession, and changing language attittdes in the community. An appendix includs questionnaires and rating smiles concerning language usage and attitudes. A selected bibliography contains sections on dialectical differences, linguistics for the layperson, dialectiteaching material, attitudes toward usage, and the change process. (NKM) *********************************************************************** * heproductions supplied by EDRS are the best that can be made * * from the original document. * ***********************************************************************

Sidney Greenbaum, John Taylor, The Recognition of Usage Errors by Instructors of Freshman Composition, College Composition and Communication, Vol. 32, No. 2, Language Studies and Composing (May, 1981), pp. 169-174

A brief business letter was written, then ten versions were madeup—each having from four to twenty-nine errors systematically introduced. Three hundred students read one version of the letter, then answered questions about the letter's contents and judged the “author” (is he intelligent, a good writer, etc.). The results pointed to misspelling as the most often noticed class of errors. Readers judged the author most harshly when spelling errors were present, but did not reach the same conclusion in the face of errors of syntax or punctuation. Finally, people labeled all classes of errors “misspelling,” and did not identify syntactic problems.

In most textbooks on technical writing, understandability of sentences is misleadingly equated with grammatical primitiveness. In actual technical writing, however, writers regularly conform to six basic rules dealing with the uses of base clauses and free modifiers, as well as punctuation. There are ten types of free modifiers, which can be used singly or in parallel or nonparallel sequences. All types are used either to add details to a key idea expressed in a base clause or to make transitions between one sentence or paragraph and another.

BECAUSE THE FRESHMAN COMPOSITION CLASS is usually the students' first introduction to college, what better place to challenge sexist reading, writing, and thinking? What better place to help students understand the relationship between language and thought? Instead of grammar-book rules that instruct students to avoid the masculine pronoun when gender is unclear, classroom activities can encourage students actively to explore their sexist values and draw their own conclusions. These activities should attack sexism at its roots by examining the cultural conditioning which both encourages faulty thinking and limits options for women and men. At the same time, through an examination of sexism, teachers can get at some of the students' persistent writing difficulties, such as generating essay topics, supporting topic sentences with sufficient proof, and selecting appropriate words and tone. Even though students have read and written for the better part of their lives, they seem unaware of the power of language to condition minds. They do not recognize that the assumption that males hold all prestigious positions lies behind the business correspondence salutation of Dear Sir. Nor can they identify the cultural bias toward single women reinforced by the titles Mr., Mrs., and Miss. If confronted directly with this sexism, many students acquiesce by using Ms. and by revising all he pronouns to read he/she. Nonetheless, they view such practices as arbitrary, senseless, and bothersome. A study of the causes and effects of sexist language can be integrated with and grow naturally from existing course structures and objectives. The three activities which follow are designed to explore the implications of sexism while building reading and writing skills. The first comprises word lists that develop awareness of sexist language used in literature and in students' own writings, while the second explores fairy tales that, like other literature, transmit sex role stereotypes and biases. The third considers research topics related to the two preceding activities. These three activities can be arranged in several sequences to develop writing objectives. For example, a teacher who views writing as a discovery process might use the following sequence: (1) students look at the data in the Hemingway passage from differing viewpoints, manipulate the data, and form tentative hypotheses; (2) students, in a

Neman's extensive revision of the first edition, (published by Merrill in 1980) takes into account the recent explosion of scholarly inquiry and research composition while remaining focused on the basic substance of pedagogy - the nurturing of the student mind. Her approach is student- centred , based on twenty-five years of classroom experience, and will both train its readers to teach writing and tactfully provide an opportunity for them to master writing skills themselves, Covers process, structure, grammar, documentation, narrative, poetry, and stylistic problems from nonstandard dialects.

of writing: the use of abbreviations, the division of compound words, some rules for spelling properly, among other things.This comprehensive book is aimed at students of technical writing and of English in two-year colleges.It is devised as a typical textbook: The margins are wide enough for notes, the terms likely to be new to students are printed in expanded boldface type and their meaning in light italics.Also printed in light italics are points the author thinks worth emphasizng.The book is easy to read: physically because the print is on non-glare paper, conceptually because it is well written and well organized, and that, after all, is the acid test of the quality of a book on composition.Superficially, nothing about the book suggests that it is a book on technical writing.One sees no charts, no graphs, no exploded views, no instructions on how to write an abstract.And yet this book is ideally suited for learning about or teach ing technical writing because technical writing, to attain its objective, must reflect the precision and discipline of thought basic to science and technology.That is the topic of this book.The manners and conventions of presentation, namely, that in technical writing one would use a table to compare or contrast pieces of apparatus of different make or vintage, that one would use a step-action chart or a flowchart to describe a process-all this, though important for the efficient transfer of information, is nevertheless somewhat peripheral to the meaning of technical writing.Students who learn about composition from

Since teacher expectations for good writing, as communicated in responses on student compositions, may influence the nature of student writing and since little is known about how teachers respond to student writing, this study was designed to investigate the responses made by intermediate level teachers to their students' writing. Responses were classified as focusing on content or form of student writing. Classification on another dimension dealt with types of response (evaluation, assessment, instruction, audience response, or moving outside the writing). Findings show that teachers responded overwhelmingly to form. Specific types of responses tended to be of two kinds: (1) evaluation, which was usually of a general nature (e.g., Well written or a mark) and (2) instruction, which usually focused on specific language structures by correcting all mechanical errors.

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Instead of just recording thoughts, printing itself can be used as a means of communicating ideas. Writer and publisher should collaborate to produce an article or a book in such a way as to make its organization and meaning more clear. `Discourse punctuation' encompasses the inclusion of an outline; underlining, both thick and thin; boldface words, phrases, and sentences; brackets or boxes around important sections; marginal markers and notes; various printing styles, type fonts and sizes; and the use of color. The intent of these effects is to increase the reader's immediate understanding and thereby to increase the speed and efficiency of reading. The author demonstrates some of these suggestions.

Writing that observes time-honored conventions of grammar is easy to read and understand. A high school text is usually an adequate reminder of these. Confidence in writing comes also from familiarity with a good, large dictionary and a style handbook; then study and practice make perfect Forty questions test your memory or your “ear” for grammar and punctuation.

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